To Big Tech Corporations, Policymakers, and Global Institutions,

We, the undersigned, representing diverse communities, activists, Indigenous communities and feminist networks, urgently call for accountability, transparency, equity, and justice in the governance of emerging technologies. The unchecked expansion of Big Tech has resulted in the deepening of gender-based oppression, environmental dispossession, and the systemic silencing of marginalized voices. We refuse to allow technology to become yet another tool of colonial exploitation and demand immediate reforms in the way technology is developed, governed, and deployed.

Our Demands

1. End Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence (TFGBV)

Women, LGBTQ+ individuals, Indigenous and marginalized communities continue to suffer from online gender-based violence, including doxxing, deepfake pornography, cyber-harassment, and digital surveillance. Tech platforms must be held accountable for enabling harm. We demand: 

• Immediate reinvestment in Trust & Safety teams with a focus on non-English language content moderation.
• Comprehensive policies to combat sextortion, non-consensual intimate imagery, and AI-generated GBV content.
• Legally binding regulations requiring tech firms to protect survivors and hold perpetrators accountable.

2. Dismantle Digital Colonialism in Environmental Governance

Big Tech corporations are exploiting planetary data and violating Indigenous Peoples’ sovereignty over land and environmental governance. We demand: 

• Transparency in the collection and sale of environmental data that impacts Indigenous and local communities lands and territories.
• The recognition of Indigenous Data Sovereignty as a human right in AI governance and planetary monitoring.
• Protection of frontline environmental defenders from digital surveillance and criminalization.

3. Combat Disinformation & Narrative Manipulation

Women, activists, and Indigenous leaders are systematically silenced through state-backed disinformation campaigns and algorithmic biases that amplify hate speech. We demand: 

• Stronger oversight on AI-generated misinformation and accountability for tech platforms profiting from disinformation.
• Transparency on algorithmic decision-making to ensure feminist and Indigenous voices are not shadow-banned or deplatformed.
• Equitable access to digital safety training for activists and feminist journalists at risk.

4. Invest in Feminist-Led Tech Development & Governance

Technology governance must shift away from corporate control toward democratic, feminist, and community-led models. We demand: 

• Inclusion of feminist technologists, Indigenous leaders, and community-driven organizations in AI and digital governance frameworks.
• Regulations on tech corporations to prevent exploitative labor practices and environmental degradation in supply chains.
• Funding for feminist-led digital initiatives that prioritize ethical AI, data justice, and sustainable tech infrastructure.

This is a call to action. We urge governments, policymakers, and technology companies to recognize their responsibility in building an equitable digital future. If technology is to serve humanity, it must be just, inclusive, and free from colonialist exploitation and facilitation of gender-based violence.

We, the undersigned, demand that these issues be addressed with urgency. The future of technology must be feminist, decolonized, and just.

Signed,
[Signatories and Organizations]

Click here to add your signature

*This letter was drafted based upon a session held at the Asia Pacific Feminist Forum in Thailand in September 2024. Organised and facilitated by Pyrou Chung (K4D), Rohini Lakshané (Factor Daily), and Nina Sangma (Independent Journalist).

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Read the new report:

Click here to read and download

Decolonizing Emerging Technology – An Intersectional Feminist Approach to Resisting Technology-Facilitated Oppression

Emerging technologies are exacerbating gender-based violence (GBV), disinformation, and environmental dispossession, disproportionately affecting womxn, LGBTQ+ individuals, and Indigenous Peoples. Large technology companies, also known as Big Tech, operate without sufficient accountability, reinforcing digital colonialism and economic exploitation. This paper outlines urgent policy gaps and presents recommendations for feminist-led, inclusive technology governance. This report presents key findings from a workshop exploring these issues and provides recommendations for feminist-led, inclusive technology governance.

Artwork Courtesy of: @Tufan’s Artbin

The post Decolonizing Emerging Technology: A Call for Intersectional Feminist Action first appeared on Open Development Mekong.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is a category of cross-border investment in which an investor resident in one economy establishes a lasting interest in, and retains a significant degree of influence over an enterprise resident in another economy. FDI involves capital flows from one country to another, granting the foreign investors extensive ownership stakes in domestic companies and assets. Foreign investment denotes that foreigners have an active role in management as a part of their investment or an equity stake large enough to enable the foreign investor to influence business strategies.

Since 2003, Southeast Asia has emerged as the leading region for attracting foreign investment with ASEAN reporting that FDI levels reached $224 billion in 2022. Countries across Southeast Asia compete to attract foreign investment, with China and the USA competing to invest in the region, supplanting the traditional leading investor in this field – Japan.

FDI in the Lower Mekong

The LMCs, comprising Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam are home to around 245 million people. The main industries across the region include textiles, tourism, mining, agriculture, manufacturing, and services, among others. The Mekong River itself is a driver of the economies of the LMCs, providing for agricultural systems, energy production, manufacturing, and food security providing an economic livelihood for tens of millions of people. Worldwide FDI is worth as net inflow, as of 2022, $1.76 trillion, whilst for LMCs this accounts for a $34.56 billion net inflow. Thailand and Vietnam lead the way in the Lower Mekong Region (LMR), with Thailand receiving nearly three times the amount of net inflows of foreign investment as Cambodia in 2022- $11.2 billion compared to $3.6 billion. 

Laws and Regulations

All five of the LMCs are members of ASEAN, and signatories to the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA). The AFTA is a trade bloc agreement by ASEAN to support local trade and manufacturing across the region. It also facilitates economic integration with regional and international allies. In 2009 an international treaty, the ASEAN–Australia–New Zealand Free Trade Area (AANZFTA), was signed between the ASEAN countries, and Australia and New Zealand. Similar treaties exist between ASEAN and China (ACFTA), India (AIFTA), Japan (AJCEP), South Korea (AKFTA), and Hong Kong (AHKFTA).⁴ In total ASEAN are signatories to 15 Treaties with Investment Provisions (TIPs).⁵

The LMCs have also signed a number of bilateral investment treaties (BITs) with other nations. As of 2024, Cambodia has signed bilateral investment treaties (BITs) with 27 countries (11 of which are not in force or have been terminated),⁶ Laos with 25 (3 are currently terminated or not in force),⁷ Myanmar with 11 (2 of which have been terminated or are not in force),⁸ Thailand has signed 41 (7 of which have been terminated or are not in force),⁹ and Vietnam which has 67 (16 of which have been terminated or are not in force).¹⁰

As of 2024, all of the LMCs have signed laws, beneficial to the promotion of foreign investment into law. Though most of these agreements allow for up to 100% foreign ownership (in the instance of Cambodia, for example), restrictions remain across the LMCs. For example, sectors such as financial and banking, telecommunications, and other sectors designated as having a bearing on national security may be excluded from investment or require a domestic partner.

Cambodia	The Cambodian government has prioritised attracting foreign investment and a new law on Investment in the Kingdom of Cambodia was passed in 2021, introduced with the intention of creating an open, transparent, and reliable legal environment for attracting both domestic and foreign investment in the country. Introduced in 2009 the Law on Investment Promotion was amended in November 2016, with 32 new articles introduced and 59 existing articles revised. These amendments clarified investment incentives and revised restrictions on capital requirements for opening a business. Although most sectors and businesses are open for foreign investors to invest in, the reality is that restrictions remain for sectors or businesses that are designated as a potential national security risk or are in the case of some industries local equity participation is required. Whilst foreign investors are able to attain full ownership of businesses in some instances it is more likely to see investors partnering with local partners, or in instances of large projects, such as in mining or hydropower, investors are likely to seek partial government ownership. This is due to, what is perceived to be, the complicated official and unofficial processes of obtaining the rights to invest.
Laos	Introduced in 2009 the Law on Investment Promotion was amended in November 2016, with 32 new articles introduced and 59 existing articles revised. These amendments clarified investment incentives and revised restrictions on capital requirements for opening a business. Foreign investors are able to invest in any sector or business with those considered as a potential national security risk restricted from investment. Whilst foreign investors are able to attain full ownership of businesses in some instances it is more likely to see investors partnering with local partners, or in instances of large projects, such as in mining or hydropower, investors are likely to seek partial government ownership. This is due to, what is perceived to be, the complicated official and unofficial processes of obtaining the rights to invest.
Myanmar	Myanmar’s Foreign Investment Law was enacted in 1988 soon after the adoption of a market-oriented economic system to boost the flow of FDI into the country. The 2016 Myanmar Investment Law (MIL) and the 2018 Companies Law continue to govern treatment of foreign investment. The MIL designates which sectors are available for investment with it also listing a list of prohibited and restricted sectors. Whilst the Companies Law stipulates that foreign investment can be up to 35% in domestic companies. Since the coup in 2021 the economy shrank by 18% with a significant drop in commercial activity being evident. The current political situation in Myanmar presents a multitude of challenges for investors, with opaque regulations, policies and rules for governing foreign investment. As a result of the political instability and opaque process, foreign investment has decreased year on year since 2021.
Thailand	Thailand has been and continues to be one of the most successful countries in the region for attracting Foreign Direct Investment due to the advantageous environment for investors.11 The Foreign Business Act (FBA) of 1999 governs most investment activity by non-Thai nationals. On September 14, 2021, Thailand’s Cabinet passed a resolution introducing immigration, tax, and land ownership incentives aimed at attracting foreign investors, wealthy pensioners, professionals who can work remotely from Thailand and highly skilled professionals. However, the Foreign Business Act prescribes a wide range of business that may not be conducted by foreigners without additional licences or exemptions. These include banking, insurance, and telecommunications which are reserved for Thai nationals, and as such foreign investment in businesses in these sectors has to amount to less than 50%.
Vietnam	In recent years Vietnam has signed a series of free trade agreements, including the UK-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement, and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership that includes the Asia-Pacific nations of Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam itself. These agreements are seen as a means of making it easier to attract foreign investment by providing better market access for Vietnamese exports and encouraging investor friendly reforms.12 In 2019 Resolution 55 was passed to increase Vietnam’s attractiveness to foreign investment, aiming to attract $50 billion in new foreign investment by 2030. In 2020, laws were revised on investment and enterprise, in addition to passing the Public-Private Partnership Law, to further the goals of Resolution 55. Following this in February 2021 a 10-year economic strategy was devised and approved that proposed for a shifting foreign investment to high-tech industries and ensuring such investment meets higher standards relating to environmental protection, echoing a statement made by Prime Minister Pham Minh Chinh at COP26 where he pledged for Vietnam to reach net zero emissions by 2050.

Main Investors

Historically the main investors in the LMR have been China, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. It is a drawer for these countries enticed by initiatives such as the Asian Development Bank’s Economic Corridor projects and China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Due to the region’s strategic location and abundant natural resources it finds itself caught between the power-relations of global superpowers such as China, Japan, South Korea and the United States.

Cambodia	Despite the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic China continued to invest in Cambodia, with this increasing significantly from 2021 with investment reaching $19.2 billion by the end of 2022. Beyond China the other significant investors in Cambodia include the USA, the Republic of Korea, the UK, and Malaysia. Between January and September of 2023, Cambodia drew in fixed-asset investments worth $3.76 billion, a 8.6% increase from the $3.46 billion recorded in the same period for 2022.
Laos	China, Thailand, France, Vietnam, and Japan are the largest sources of foreign investment, with China accounting for a significant share of all investment in Laos. With the introduction of SEZs in the Vientiane and Savannakhet regions attracting investors from Europe, North America, and Japan, China and Thai investors are developing plans for additional SEZ projects. The total foreign investment in Laos increased from $5.7 billion in 2016 to $10 billion in 2019, though the U.S Department of State notes that reliable figures are difficult to attain and verify.
Myanmar	Singapore, China, and Thailand, as of 2020, were the main investors in Myanmar with Singapore receiving the highest number of approved investments. Since 2021 the main investors have been Singapore and China with lower amounts of investment originating from countries such as Taiwan, India, South Korea, Samoa, the UK, and the USA. The majority of recent investment, as recorded in 2023, went into the electricity and energy sector.
Thailand	China was the leading foreign investor in Thailand in 2023, with Singapore in second place and the United States ranked third with 40 projects valued at $2.3 billion. Japan was in fourth place, followed by Taiwan.
Vietnam	In 2023, 111 countries and territories were recorded as investing in Vietnam, led by Singapore with over $6.9 billion, accounting for 18.6% of total foreign investment inflows, a rise of 5.4% year on year. Japan ranked second with nearly $6.57 billion, while Hong Kong (China) came third with 4.68 billion USD. As of February 2024, and according to Vietnam’s Foreign Trade Agency, Vietnam has 39,000 valid projects with capital surpassing $473.1 billion. Across the first two months of 2024 Singapore, Hong Kong, Japan, and mainland China were among the top sources of foreign investment out of 48 countries and territories with investments in Vietnam.13

Investment Industries and Sectors

Physical infrastructure projects dominate FDI across the LMR. Foreign investors invest in the development of large scale energy projects, including hydropower, coal and oil-powered power stations, and physical infrastructure such as railways and ports. Beyond this investment is directed towards manufacturing and agricultural processing.

Energy	The energy sector in the Lower Mekong, and the Greater Mekong region, is dominated by Hydropower. For example, according to Lao government statistics, mining and hydropower accounts for 95.7 percent of foreign investment in 2019.
Hydropower	The Mekong region’s economy and livelihoods are dominated by the Mekong River. The Mekong River, is also culturally and ecologically significant, accounts for 25 percent of the global freshwater catch whilst also providing livelihoods for tens of millions of people through fishing, agriculture and providing the means of transporting goods. The Mekong River’s source is in the Tibetan Plateau and runs through Southwest China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and southern Vietnam. Whilst hydropower projects had been initiated along the Mekong River since the 1960s, the start of the early 2000s saw a rapid increase in hydropower projects, currently around 100 dams along the Mekong River, with many more planned for the coming years. Hydropower, pushed as a green or clean energy source as part of the shift away from fossil fuel driven energy production, has also been subject to a number of criticisms. Not only are its green credentials questioned, it has also been responsible for the damage to local communities, due to forced relocation and damage to the local ecosystem and fishing stock, in turn affecting livelihoods.
Lower Sesan 2 Dam	One of these projects, found in the Mekong River basin on the Se San River, in the Stung Treng Province of northeastern Cambodia is the Lower Sesan 2 Dam. In November 2012, the Cambodian government approved the Lower Sesan 2 Dam as a joint venture between Cambodian, Chinese and Vietnamese investment. Construction on the dam began in early 2013 with the construction led by the Hydropower Lower Sesan 2 Co., Ltd, which is owned by Cambodia's Royal Group and China's Hydrolancang International Energy Co., Ltd (90%) and Vietnam's Electricity of Vietnam (10%). The project was financed by the Royal Group (30%) and an undisclosed Chinese bank loan (70%), believed to be China Development Bank. The dam was officially opened on December 18, 2018 and is expected to produce 400 megawatts of electricity when at full capacity.
Myitsone Dam	There are currently 41 operating hydropower dams in Myanmar, with 89 planned. The Irrawaddy River, an important commercial waterway, is also subject to a number of planned hydropower dams. In 2007 the then Myanmar government signed an agreement with China Power Investment for the construction of seven hydropower dams along the river. One of these, the Myitsone has been subjected to multiple delays. The Myitsone Dam was planned to have a generation capacity of 6,000MW with the intended destination of the produced electricity primarily for exporting to Yunnan, China, with completion of the project scheduled for 2019. The project developers for this project, a group of Chinese investors, were Yunnan International Power Investment Co., Ltd. with the main contractors being China Gezhouba Group, China Power Investment Corporation Materials and Equipment Co., Ltd., and Number 4 and 11 Bureaus of Sinohydro. The $3.6 billion dam, ranked as one of the biggest hydropower projects in the region, was suspended by former President Thein Sein in 2011. Rumours of the project’s revival arose in 2016 and 2019 and again since 2021, but to this date the project remains suspended.
Coal-fueled Power Stations	Due to the number of coal mines found across the region, the number of coal-fueled power stations is also relatively high, with the highest number of power stations found in Vietnam, which is home to 25 operating power stations.14 Vietnam also had, between 2011 and 2021, the fastest growth in coal consumption within the Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN) region. Due to the myriad concerns around the mining and use of coal as a fuel source, Vietnam has agreed to phase out coal power by the 2040s.15
Hangsa Power Station	The Hongsa Power Station is a coal fired power station in the Xayaboury Province of Laos. The Hangsa Power Station incorporates an open face mine and a 1878MW coal fired power station. The power station was developed by Hongsa Power Company. Hongsa Power Company is a consortium comprising the Thai company RATCH Group Public Company Limited, Banpu Power (itself a subsidiary of the Thai coal-mining company Banpu), and Lao Holding State Enterprise. Ratch and Banpu each have a 40% stake in the project and Lao Holding a 20% stake.
Special Economic Zones	One way that countries attempt to promote foreign investment is through the formation of Special Economic Zones (SEZ). An SEZ is an area in a country that is designed to generate positive economic growth. An SEZ is normally subject to different and more favourable economic regulations compared to other regions in the same country, including tax incentives and the opportunity to pay lower tariffs. SEZs serve as a mechanism for attracting foreign direct investment, accelerating industrialization and creating jobs.The implementation of SEZs are known to cause conflicts between local people and authorities.16 Criticism of SEZs often focus on the perceived negative socio-economic impacts. With these particularly impacting negatively on women. Land dispossession and environmental harms to water supplies, air quality and pollutants from the industries housed in the SEZs also contribute to the harms and difficulties faced by local communities.
Eastern Economic Corridor	The Eastern Economic Corridor SEZ (also known as the Eastern Special Development Zone), located in eastern Thailand across three provinces, was established on the 17th January 2017 with a budget of 1.5 trillion baht (US$43 billion) over its first five years. This was followed by a further 1.35 trillion baht ($44 billion) plan to develop the Eastern Economic Corridor into a regional financial hub and a world-class smart city by 2037 in December 2022. A new high-speed rail line is planned to serve the Eastern Economic Corridor with the planned Don Mueang–Suvarnabhumi–U-Tapao high-speed railway designed to connect Don Mueang International Airport, Suvarnabhumi Airport and U-Tapao International Airport. This line is planned to be opened in 2029 and will be operated by the Asia Era One Company Limited, a vehicle for a consortium of companies - Charoen Pokphand Group Company, Limited and partners Ch. Karnchang PLC., Bangkok Expressway and Metro PLC., Italian-Thai Development PLC. and China Railway Construction Corporation Limited who beat Bangkok Expressway and Metro to the contract.

Other Sectors of Interest

Maritime

Beyond the landlocked nation of Loas, the LMCs not only have access to a wide network of rivers and tributaries, but also a vast coastline presenting opportunities for investment in ports. China, as part of its BRI initiative, has invested heavily in the development of ports. Investments in ports such as Kyaukpyu deep-water port in Myanmar, forms a portion of a wider project to connect China with the Indian Ocean by means of rail.¹¹

Hai Phong International Container Terminal

Port infrastructure is a major attraction for foreign investment, especially investment from major shipping lines and joint-venture port companies.Vietnam has a total of 320 ports, including seaports and river ports, of which 163 are international ports. Hai Phong, Da Nang, and HCMC are the three major ports of Vietnam, located in the North, the Central, and the South, respectively.¹²

On 13 May 2018, Hai Phong International Container Terminal (HICT), a joint venture between Saigon Newport Corporation (holding 51% of shares), Japan’s MITSUI O.S.K Lines (holding 17.5% of shares) Taiwan’s WanHai Lines (holding 16.5% of shares) and Japan’s Itochu Group (holding 15% of capital) held the grand opening ceremony. Hai Phone International Container Terminal is the largest deep-water container terminal in Northern Vietnam providing direct services to America and Europe for Vietnamese exports and imports. The opening of the terminal also marked the official opening of the Lach Huyen Port, a Public Private Partnership between the governments of Japan and Vietnam.

Related to This Page

• Foreign Investment in Cambodia
• Foreign Direct Investment in Laos
• Foreign Direct Investment in Myanmar
• Foreign Direct Investment in Thailand
• Foreign Direct Investment in Vietnam

The post Foreign Investment in the Lower Mekong Region first appeared on Open Development Mekong.

Open and accessible data on Indigenous Peoples in Thailand are being developed. A key challenge in this undertaking, however, is that the names of different ethnic groups — specifically in Thai language — are often spelled differently by implementing agencies, and even among the Indigenous groups themselves. This is a serious gap that stakeholders and beneficiaries need to address to enable Indigenous Peoples to exercise self-determination over their identities. Proper data collection and disaggregation of these data on Indigenous Peoples has therefore been identified as an urgent priority in order to both accurately reflect the situations of Indigenous Peoples and to find solutions to tackle them.

Recognizing the importance and challenge of addressing this issue, activists commenced a discussion during the events celebrating this year’s Thailand’s Indigenous Peoples Day and the International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, held in Bangkok from August 6–9, 2022.

Photo exhibition showing the indigenous cultures and knowledge that need to be preserved.

The Issue

Indigenous population data in Thailand collected by the Department of Social Development and Welfare are widely used. However, these data are not seen as being representative of the six million populations they attempt to capture. One reason for this is that, as found in both academic research on Indigenous Peoples’ languages and cultures conducted by Mahidol University and the Indigenous profiles collected by the Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre (SAC), there are a variety of terms used to identify Indigenous and ethnic groups in Thailand. In addition to creating confusion in the data, these variations pose a serious challenge to Indigenous rights of self-identification, because some terms have not yet been agreed by the communities themselves.

For example, an ethnic group called “Mien” can be rendered differently by different implementers: “เมี่ยน (Mien)” or “เย้า (Yaow)” in academic research; “เย้า (เมี่ยน) (Yaow Mien)” in the governmental data; “เมี่ยน (Mien)” by the Council of Indigenous Peoples in Thailand (CIPT); and “อิ้วเมี่ยน (Eiw Mien)” in the SAC database.

The consultation meeting at the Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre (SAC) on August 8, 2022.

The naming of Indigenous groups represents more than just identity. Indigenous identity is linked to the uniqueness of their valuable cultures, knowledge, and languages, which is reciprocally tied to time and space. They have been the natural stewards of many of the country’s unique and diverse regions. Protection of these lands is sacred and essential to their survival as a collectivized Indigenous Peoples.

However, legal biases and prejudices towards Indigenous Peoples in Thailand have been perpetuated over the decades. This discrimination has deprived them of basic rights — to land, territories, and other natural resources; to livelihood and food security; and to healthcare. The inability to access these rights and continued violations has led to a loss of Indigenous Peoples’ identity, culture, and traditions. Expansion of emerging infrastructure and other exploitative developments and lack of legal protection frameworks have resulted in significant degradation of their lands and the displacement of many Indigenous Peoples, and has thus heavily impacted their livelihoods and ability to maintain their identity.

Legal biases and prejudices towards Indigenous Peoples in Thailand have been perpetuated over the decades.

Toward a Solution

To tackle this long-standing problem, a participatory approach which includes leaders and members of Indigenous Peoples’ groups is needed to ensure that the Indigenous database is reliable, acceptable by all stakeholders and beneficiaries, and ultimately supports Indigenous Peoples’ self-identification and self-determination rights.

During the Bangkok event, the SAC leadership hosted a consultation meeting on August 8 to discuss how to implement an integrated approach for developing an open Indigenous database in the country. Approximately 30 participants — including government officials, academic institutions, representatives from CIPT, and leaders of the Indigenous networks across Thailand — attended this meeting. The meeting offered a solution to allowing Indigenous Peoples to take control of their own self-determination, and involving a representative of stakeholders and beneficiaries in future meetings to making a decision of naming issues and other indigenous rights as of concern.

Ethnic youth groups participated in identifying key situations and solutions they wish to see from key decision makers and policy development leaders.

During the celebration recognizing Indigenous Peoples and ethnic groups in Thailand, communities gathered in Bangkok to push forward five pending draft bills on the promotion and protection of traditional livelihoods of ethnic groups in Thailand. These bills were first initiated in 2007 and are still under discussion in parliament. It is anticipated that if the draft bills are successfully adopted, they will transform protections of cultural and livelihood rights and support Indigenous Peoples’ rights, creating equality and equity based on respect for the dignity of ethnic minorities and Indigenous Peoples.

The post Discussions Prioritize Self-determination Rights for Indigenous Data first appeared on Open Development Mekong.

សេចក្តីផ្តើម

ជាងមួយទស្សវត្សរ៍មុន ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបានកត់ត្រាអត្រាលូតលាស់ពិតប្រាកដជាមធ្យមចំនួន¹ ៧.៧%។² ពីប្រទេសដែលមានប្រាក់ចំណូលមធ្យមកម្រិតទាបក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០១៥³ ប្រទេសកម្ពុជានៅតែជាប្រទេសមួយដែលមានសេដ្ឋកិច្ចរីកលូតលាស់យ៉ាងឆាប់រហ័សបំផុតមួយនៅក្នុងសាកលលោក។ ការវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស(FDI)⁴ គឺជាកក្តារួមចំណែកមួយដ៏សំខាន់សម្រាប់ភាពរីកចម្រើននេះ។⁵ ការវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេសបានធ្លាក់ចុះនៅឆ្នាំ២០២០ និងឆ្នាំ២០២១ ប្រៀបធៀបទៅនឹងឆ្នាំ២០១៩ ដោយសារតែវិបត្តិនៃការរាតត្បាតជម្ងឺកូវីដ។⁶ តែទោះយ៉ាងណា អ្នកវិភាគបានប៉ាន់ប្រមាណថានឹងមានការរីកចម្រើនផ្នែកសេដ្ឋកិច្ចវិញនៅឆ្នាំ២០២១។⁷

សំណង់អាគារនៅក្នុងខេត្តព្រះសីហនុ។ ថតរូបដោយ Sim Kimhort តាមរយៈ Unsplash.

១- កក្តាកំណត់នយោបាយភូមិសាស្រ្តនិងវិស័យពាក់ព័ន្ធផ្សេងៗ

កក្តាកំណត់នយោបាយភូមិសាស្រ្ត

ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាជាប្រទេសស្ថិតនៅផ្នែកខាងក្រោមនៃតំបន់ទន្លេមេគង្គ ដែលបង្កឲ្យមានជម្លោះផលប្រយោជន៍ពាក់ព័ន្ធនឹងធនធានជលផល។ តួអង្គសំខាន់ៗដែលដើរតួនៅក្នុងតំបន់រួមមាន ប្រទេសវៀតណាម ថៃ ចិន និងសហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក។ យោងតាមធនាគារជាតិកម្ពុជា នៅឆ្នាំ២០១៩ ៤២%នៃវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស គឺចេញប្រភពមកពីប្រទេសចិន បន្ទាប់មកប្រទេសកូរ៉េខាងត្បូង (១១%)​ ប្រទេសវៀតណាម (៧%) ប្រទេសជប៉ុននិងសាំងហ្គាពួរ (៦%ម្នាក់) ដូចបង្ហាញជូននៅក្នុងរូបក្រាហ្វិចទី១។⁸ ចំនួនវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស
ដែលត្រូវបានឯកភាពជារឿយៗបង្ហាញតួរលេខខុសប្លែកគ្នាទៅតាមផ្នែកខ្លះៗ (សូមើលរូបក្រាហ្វិចទី២) ដោយសារតែការវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេសដែលត្រូវបានឯកភាពក៏មានរួមបញ្ចូលគម្រោងទាំងឡាយដែលអាចនិយាយបានថាមិនទាន់បា នចេញជាលទ្ធផលពេញលេញ។ សូមមើលនៅក្នុងតារាង១និង២នៅក្នុងឧបសម្ព័ន្ធ១ ដែលបង្ហាញអំពីទំហំថវិកាវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេសដែលត្រូវបានរាយការណ៍នៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជាក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០១៩ ដែលមានភាពខុសប្លែកគ្នាពីចន្លោះ៣.៥កោដដុល្លារទៅ៣.៧កោដលានដុល្លារអាមេរិក។⁹

ក្រាហ្វិចទី១៖ ភាគរយនៃលំហូរចូលវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស ទៅតាមប្រទេស(ឆ្នាំ២០១៩)  

ក្រាហ្វិចទី២៖ វិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេសដែលទទួលបានការឯកភាពតាមប្រទេស(ឆ្នាំ១៩៩៤-២០១៩) 

ប្រទេសចិនគឺជាប្រទេសវិនិយោគបរទេសដ៏ធំបំផុតជាងគេសម្រាប់ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាចាប់តាំងពីឆ្នាំ២០១៣¹⁰ មកម្លេះ និងជាដៃគូសម្ព័ន្ធនយោបាយជាមួយគ្នាដ៏សំខាន់ផងដែរ។ ចាប់តាំងពីមានការចាប់ផ្តើមទំនាក់ទំនងសេដ្ឋកិច្ចបច្ចុប្បន្នរវាងចិននិងកម្ពុជាក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០០៦¹¹ មក វាបានក្លាយជា”ភាពជាដៃគូសហការគ្នាជាយុទ្ធសាស្រ្តដ៏ទូលំទូលាយមួយ” ដែលត្រូវបានគាំទ្រដោយគម្រោងហេដ្ឋារចនាសម្ព័ន្ធធំៗ ដែលជាផ្នែកមួយនៃគម្រោងគំនិតផ្តួចផ្តើមផ្លូវថ្នល់និងខ្សែក្រវាត់ (BRI)។¹²

ផ្ទុយទៅនឹងគោលការណ៍វិនិយោគជាសាកលរបស់ខ្លួន¹³ ការវិនិយោគរបស់ចិននៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបានបន្តកើនឡើងជាលំដាប់នៅចន្លោះឆ្នាំ២០១៥និង២០១៩។¹⁴ ចំនួនទឹកប្រាក់៨៦០លានដុល្លារអាមេរិកនៃវិនិយោគបរទេសចិនត្រូវបានឯកភាពក្នុងរយៈពេល១១ខែដំបូងនៃឆ្នាំ២០២០។¹⁵ ប្រទេសចិនគឺជាប្រទេសដៃគូពាណិជ្ជកម្មដ៏ធំបំផុតរបស់ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាដែលមានទំហំទឹកប្រាក់ពាណិជ្ជកម្មសរុបរហូតដល់៨.៥៣កោដដុល្លារអាមេរិកក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០១៩¹⁶ ដែលចំនួនទំហំទឹកប្រាក់សរុបត្រូវបានកំណត់រវាងភាគីទាំងពីរគឺមានចំនួន១០កោដដុល្លារអារមិកនៅឆ្នាំ២០២៣។¹⁷ បន្ថែមពីលើនេះគម្រោងទាំងឡាយដែលបានជំនួយពីចិនត្រូវបានអនុវត្តដោយក្រុមហ៊ុនចិនខ្លួនឯងផងដែរ។¹⁸

ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាមិនមែនជាប្រទេសគោលដៅដ៏ទាក់ទាញមួយសម្រាប់ការវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីប្រទេសអាមេរិកនោះទេ។ ទោះបីយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយ មានក្រុមហ៊ុនអាមរិកមួយចំនួនក៏បានកំពុងបន្តការធ្វើវិនិយោគនៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជាផងដែរ និងបានរក្សាភាពជាដៃគូសម្រាប់តំបន់មេគង្គជាមួយនិងអាមេរិក(ឆ្នាំ២០២០) ដែលបានសន្យាថានឹងបង្កើតវិនិយោគថ្មីៗសំខាន់ៗថែមទៀតទៀងនៅក្នុងតំបន់នេះ។¹⁹ បន្ថែមពីនេះក្រុមហ៊ុនសាជីវកម្មហិរញ្ញវត្ថុអភិវឌ្ឍអន្តរជាតិថ្មីរបស់សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក បានសន្យាផ្តល់ជំនួយកម្ចីក្នុងចំនួនទឹកប្រាក់រាប់លានដុល្លារដើម្បីបង្កើនលទ្ធភាពសេវាកម្មផ្នែកហិរញ្ញវត្ថុផងដែរ។²⁰

វិស័យពាក់ព័ន្ធផ្សេងៗទៀត

ការវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេសនៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជាផ្តោតសំខាន់ទៅលើផ្នែកសំណង់និងអចលនៈទ្រព្យ ផលិតផលមិនមែនសំលៀកបំពាក់ ផលិតផលសំលៀកបំពាក់ និងសេវាកម្មផ្សេងៗទៀត។²¹ វិស័យទេសចរណ៍កាលពីមុនធ្លាប់ជាវិស័យលំដាប់ថ្នាក់ខ្ពស់ទីពីរ ប៉ុន្តែក្រោយមកត្រូវបានរងប៉ះពាល់ធ្ងន់ធ្ងរដោយសារតែជម្ងឺរាតត្បាតកូវីដ។²² ធនាគារពិភពលោកបានរាយការណ៍នូវចំនួនទឹកប្រាក់សរុបចំនួន១.៧៥កោដដុល្លារអាមេរិកនៅក្នុងការវិនិយោគដែលត្រូវបានឯកភាពគ្នាក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០២០²³ ថ្វិត្បិតតែក្នុងរយៈពេល៧ខែដំបូងមានត្រឹមតែចំនួន២៥លានដុល្លារអាមេរិកដែលត្រូវបានឯកភាពក៏ដោយ។²⁴

ជម្ងឺរាតត្បាតបានបង្កការប៉ះពាល់ទៅដល់ការធ្វើវិនិយោគផ្នែកសំណង់និងអចលនៈទ្រព្យ ប៉ុន្តែវាបានបង្កផលប៉ះពាល់តិចតួចប៉ុណ្ណោះទៅលើវិស័យផលិតផលមិនមែនសំលៀកបំពាក់។²⁵ សូមើលក្នុងតារាង៣-៦ ក្នុងឧបសម្ព័ន្ធ១សម្រាប់ឧទាហរណ៍អំពីសហគ្រាស្គទាំងឡាយដែលបានធ្វើវិនិយោគនៅក្នុងវិស័យធំៗរបស់ប្រទេសកម្ពុជា។

កម្មករសំណង់កំពុងឋិតនៅលើអាគារក្នុងរាជធានីភ្នំពេញ។​ ថតរូបដោយ Jeanne Crump តាមរយៈ Unsplash.

II- ក្របខ័ណ្ឌច្បាប់ កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងពាណិជ្ជកម្មទ្វេរភាគីថ្នាក់តំបន់ និងការផ្តល់ជំនួយកម្ចី

ក្រខ័ណ្ឌច្បាប់

ជារួម ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាគឺជាប្រទេសដែលមានការទាក់ទាញសម្រាប់វិនិយោគិនបរទេស។ វិស័យភាគច្រើនគឺមានការបើកចំហរសម្រាប់ភាពជាម្ចាស់កម្មសិទ្ធិបរទេសតាមរយៈការវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេសហើយប្រទេសកម្ពុជាប្រកាន់របបវិនិយោគបែបសេរីដែលឈានដល់ការបង្កើតកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងពាណិជ្ជកម្មជាច្រើនប្រភេទព្រមទាំងការផ្តល់ជំនួយប្រាក់កម្ចីបរពីទេសផងដែរ។

ទោះបីមានក្របខ័ណ្ឌច្បាប់ដើម្បីគាំទ្រវិនិយោគផ្ទាលពីបរទេសក៏ដោយក្របខ័ណ្ឌច្បាប់ទាំងនោះពុំទាន់មានភាពច្បាស់លាស់នៅឡើយទេ។ បន្ថែមពីលើនេះថ្វិត្បិតមានក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអាជ្ញាកណ្តាលពាណិជ្ជកម្មតាមផ្លូវច្បាប់ក៏ដោយ ក្នុងការអនុវត្តជាក់ស្តែងគឺនៅមានកម្រិតនៅឡើយ
និងពុំមានព័ត៌មានគ្រប់គ្រាន់នៅក្នុងវិស័យសាធារណៈស្តីពីការសម្រេចរបស់ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអាជ្ញាកណ្តាលពាណិជ្ជកម្មទេ។²⁶

មានរបាយការណ៍ខ្លះបញ្ជាក់ថាវិនិយោគិនពុំមានទំនុកចិត្តគ្រប់គ្រាន់ទៅលើប្រព័ន្ធតុលារកម្ពុជាទេ²⁷ ហេតុដូច្នេះហើយពួកគេចង់ដោះស្រាយជម្លោះពាណិជ្ជកម្មតាមរយៈការផ្សះផ្សា ការចចារគ្នាជាងដោយមានការសម្របសម្រួលពីក្រសួងពាណិជ្ជកម្មក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអភិវឌ្ឍន៍កម្ពុជា ឬសភាពាណិជ្ជកម្មកម្ពុជា។²⁸

១- ច្បាប់ស្តីពីវិនិយោគ(ឆ្នាំ១៩៩៤ ធ្វើវិសោធនកម្មឆ្នាំ២០០៣) សេចក្តីព្រាងច្បាប់ស្តីពីការវិនិយោគ(ឆ្នាំ២០២១)

ច្បាប់ស្តីពីការវិនិយោគរបស់ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបានបញ្ញត្តិលើការឯកភាពសម្រាប់ការវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស²⁹ និងផ្តល់ការលើកទឹកចិត្តទៅដល់គម្រោងវិនិយោគទាំងឡាយដែលមានលក្ខណៈសម្បត្តិគ្រប់គ្រាន់តាមរយៈការបន្ធូរបន្ថយពន្ធនិងការលើកលែងពន្ធនាំចូល។³⁰  ច្បាប់នេះបានផ្តល់សិទ្ធិសេរីភាពដល់វិនិយោគិនក្នុងការទិញនិងផ្ញើរូបិយវត្ថុបរទេសពីស្រុកក្រៅដោយសេរីដើម្បីរួមផុតពីកាតព្វកិច្ចហិរញ្ញវ ត្ថុពាក់ព័ន្ធនឹងការធ្វើវិនិយោគរបស់ខ្លួន។ កាន់តែ³¹ សំខាន់ គឺច្បាប់នេះបានធានាថាវិនិយោគបរទេសនឹងទទួលបានលក្ខខណ្ឌស្មើគ្នាឬដូចគ្នា ទៅនឹងការវិនិយោគក្នុងស្រុកផងដែរ តែក្រុមហ៊ុនកាន់កាប់ដោយបរទេសនោះប្រហែលមិនអាចកាន់កាប់ឬធ្វើជាម្ចាស់កម្មសិទ្ធិលើដីធ្លីបានទេ។³² មាត្រាទី២០នៃច្បាប់នេះបានចែងអំពីដំណោះស្រាយវិវាទផងដែរ។³³

អាគារការិយាល័យនៅក្នុងរាជធានីភ្នំពេញ។ ថតរូបដោយ Vanna Phon តាមរយៈ Unsplash.

នៅថ្ងៃទី១៥ ខែតុលា ឆ្នាំ២០២១ ច្បាប់ថ្មីស្តីការវិនិយោគត្រូវបានប្រកាស់ឲ្យប្រើ។³⁴ ច្បាប់នេះកំណត់កាតព្វកិច្ចសម្រាប់រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាលក្នុងការការពារសម្រាប់ការធ្វើវិនិយោគស្របតាមច្បាប់អន្តរជាតិហើយច្បាប់នេះមានគោលដៅទាក់ទាញការធ្វើវិនិយោគនិងជម្រុញលើកកម្ពស់ការប្រកួតប្រជែងនិងការធ្វើសេដ្ឋកិច្ចបែបចម្រុះគ្នាតាមរយៈការផ្តល់ការអនុគ្រោះឬយោគយល់ទាំងផ្នែកពន្ធនិងមិនមែនពន្ធ។³⁵ វាក៏ធ្វើឲ្យមានភាពងាយស្រួលសម្រាប់ការចុះបញ្ចិការនិងងាយស្រួលសម្រាប់នីតិវិធីតាមដានផងដែរ។³⁶

២- ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអាជ្ញាកណ្តាលពាណិជ្ជកម្មអន្តរជាតិ(ឆ្នាំ២០០៦)

ច្បាប់ឆ្នាំ២០០៦ស្តីពីក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអាជ្ញាកណ្តាលពាណិជ្ជកម្មត្រូវបានបង្កើតដោយយកតាមគម្រូរបស់គណៈកម្មការអង្គការសហប្រជាជាតិស្តីពីច្បាប់គម្រូស្តីពីច្បាប់ពាណិជ្ជកម្មអន្តរជាតិ(The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law)។³⁷ ចាប់តាំងពីការចាប់ផ្តើមសកម្មភាពរបស់ខ្លួនក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០១៣មក មជ្ឈមណ្ឌលក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអាជ្ញាកណ្តាលជាតិ បច្ចុប្បន្នហៅថាមជ្ឈមណ្ឌលក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអាជ្ញាកណ្តាលពាណិជ្ជកម្មជាតិ (NCAC)³⁸ អនុវត្តបានចំនួន២៧ករណីហើយដែលមានតម្លៃស្មើនឹងប្រមាណ៨០លានដុល្លារអាមេរិក។³⁹ ច្បាប់នីតិវិធីថ្មីៗត្រូវបានអនុម័តនៅថ្ងៃទី២៨ ខែមីនា ឆ្នាំ២០២១ ដើម្បីឲ្យវាស្របគ្នាជាមួយនិងការប្រតិបត្តិល្អសមស្របជាមួយអន្តរ ជាតិ។⁴⁰

កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងពាណិជ្ជកម្ម

១- កិច្ចការពារនៅក្នុងសន្ធិសញ្ញាវិនិយោគទ្វេរភាគីរបស់កម្ពុជា

សន្ធិសញ្ញាវិនិយោគទ្វេរភាគីរបស់កម្ពុជា (BIT) រួមមានមាត្រាផ្សេងៗដែលត្រូវបានយល់ច្បាស់ជាអន្តរជាតិដើម្បីផ្តល់ការការពារទៅដល់វិនិយោគិនបរទេស។ ចំណុចទាំងនោះរួមមានការផ្តល់លក្ខខណ្ឌស្មើគ្នា ប្រកបដោយសមធម៌និងយុត្តិធម៌ គ្មានការរើសអើង កិច្ចការពារនិងសន្តិសុខ គ្មានការរឹបអូសយកដោយខុសច្បាប់ និងចំណុចដែលមានចែងបញ្ជាក់ថាជាប្រទេសដែលមានអំណោយផលខ្លាំងបំផុតសម្រា់បការធ្វើវិនិយោគ។⁴¹ សូមមើលតារាង៧នៅក្នុងឧបសម្ព័ន្ធ១សម្រាប់តារាងរាយចំណុចសំខាន់ៗដែលពាក់ព័ន្ធសម្រាប់ការធ្វើវិនិយោគ។

២- កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងជាមួយប្រទេសចិន

ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាគឺជាប្រទេសភាគីដែលបានចុះកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងជាច្រើនប្រភេទជាមួយនិងភាគីប្រទេស ចិនរួមមានសេចក្តីប្រកាសរួមរវាងព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជានិងសាធារណៈរដ្ឋប្រជាមានិតចិន(ឆ្នាំ២០១៨)⁴² កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងពាណិជ្ជកម្មរវាងចិននិងកម្ពុជាឆ្នាំ២០២០ (CCFTA)⁴³ និងភាពជាដៃគូសេដ្ឋកិច្ចទូលំទូលាយថ្នាក់ តំបន់ (RCEP)។⁴⁴ កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងThe CCFTA⁴⁵ និង the RCEP មិនទាន់ត្រូវបានផ្តល់សច្ចាប័នដោយរដ្ឋាភិ បាលនៅឡើយទេ។

បន្ទាប់ពីត្រូវបានផ្តល់សច្ចាប័នហើយ កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀង CCFTA នឹងលុបចោលនូវកាតព្វកិច្ចពន្ធទៅលើទំនិញស្ទើរតែគ្រប់មុខទាំងអស់ដែលត្រូវបាននាំចេញនិងចូលរវាងភាគីប្រទេសចិននិងកម្ពុជា។⁴⁶ វាក៏ធ្វើឲ្យនីតិវិធីផ្នែករដ្ឋបាលមានភាពងាយស្រួលផងដែរ បង្កើតនូវយន្តការដោះស្រាយវិវាទបានច្បាស់លាស់និងជម្រុញលើកកម្ពស់សម្រាប់វិស័យពាណិជ្ជកម្មអេឡិចត្រូនិចផងដែរ។⁴⁷ តាមរបាយការណ៍ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាក៏នឹងបើកទូលាយសម្រាប់វិស័យសេវាកម្មផងដែរ សម្រាប់ប្រទេសចិន រួមទាំងវិស័យដឹកជញ្ជូនផ្លូវទឹកផងដែរ។⁴⁸ វិធានទាំងនេះអាចជួយបង្កើនពាណិជ្ជកម្មរវាងចិននិងកម្ពុជារហូតដល់២៥%⁴⁹ ហើយធ្វើឲ្យប្រទេសកម្ពុជាជាប្រទេសគោលដៅសម្រាប់ការវិនិយោគបរទេសកាន់តែគួរឲ្យទាក់ទាញថែមទៀតផងដែរសម្រាប់ប្រទេសជិតខាងរបស់ខ្លួន។⁵⁰

ប្រទេសចិនបានផ្តល់ជំនួយមូលនិធិដល់កម្ពុជាដើម្បីជួសជុលប្រាសាទអង្គវត្តឡើងវិញ។ ថតរូបដោយ Peter Borter តាមរយៈ Unsplash.

កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀង RCEP មានគោលបំណងដើម្បីគាំទ្រដល់សកម្មភាពសម្រាប់ការបន្តធ្វើសមាហរណកម្មសេដ្ឋកិច្ច⁵¹ ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ អ្នកជំនាញបានកត់សំគាល់ថាការកំណត់រយៈពេលផ្នែកពន្ធអាករជាច្រើននឹងត្រូវបានគេកំណត់ ជាមួយនិងរយៈពេលអនុវត្តសក្តានុពលដែលអាចមានរយៈពេល២០ឆ្នាំ តាមការការព្រមព្រៀងដោយប្រទេសកម្ពុជា។⁵² បន្ថែមពីលើនេះ សហគ្រាស្តដែលគ្រប់គ្រងដោយរដ្ឋមិនត្រូវបានបូកបញ្ចូលទេ។

៣- កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងវិនិយោគទូលំទូលាយអាស៊ានឆ្នាំ២០១២ (ACIA)

ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាគឺជាប្រទេសភាគីនៅក្នុងកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀង ACIA ឆ្នាំ២០១២។⁵³ ដែលក្នុងនោះរួមមាននូវកិច្ចការពារសម្រាប់វិនិយោគសំខាន់ៗជាច្រើនដូចបានចែងជាទូទៅនៅក្នុងសន្ធិសញ្ញាស្តីពីការវិនិយោគទ្វេរភាគី (BIT)។⁵⁴ វាមានភាពខុសប្លែកគ្នាពីសន្ធិសញ្ញាវិនិយោគពហុភាគីផ្សេងៗទៀត និងកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងពាណិជ្ជកម្មបរទេស FTAs ពីព្រោះកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងនេះត្រូវបានអនុវត្តដោយប្រព័ន្ធដោះស្រាយវិវាទរវាងរដ្ឋនិងវិនិយោគិនឬមជ្ឈមណ្ឌលក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអាជ្ញាកណ្តាលថ្នាក់តំបន់។⁵⁵ តម្រូវការសម្រាប់តម្លាភាពនិងភាពប៉ាន់ស្មាននៃកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងACIAនេះ មានន័យថាប្រទេសទាំងឡាយ រួមទាំង កម្ពុជាអាចចាំបាច់ត្រូវធ្វើកំណែទម្រង់ច្បាប់ឲ្យមានភាពសមស្រប។⁵⁶

ជំនួយកម្ចី 

ធាតុផ្សំមួយក្នុងចំណោមធាតុផ្សំទាំងបីនៃលំហូរចូលវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស គឺគម្រោងផ្តល់ប្រាក់កម្ចីពីអន្តរក្រុមហ៊ុន (ដែលគេហៅថាបំណុលសម្រាប់វិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស)។⁵⁷ បំណុលវិនិយោគបរទេសនេះខុសពីកម្ចីបែបសម្បទាន⁵⁸ ហើយអាចជាចំណែកដ៏តូចមួយប៉ុណ្ណោះនៃការធ្វើវិនិយោគ ដូចករណីសម្រាប់ប្រទេសចិនអញ្ចឹងដែរ។⁵⁹ ហិរញ្ញប្បទានចិនសម្រាប់គម្រោងមួយអាចត្រូវបានផ្តល់តាមរយៈការរៀបចំផ្នែកហិរញ្ញវត្ថុជាច្រើន ដែលវាបង្កឲ្យមានភាពស្មុគ្រស្មាញ។⁶⁰ តារាង៩នៅក្នុងឧបសម្ព័ន្ធ១បង្ហាញពីជំនួយហិរញ្ញវត្ថុរបស់ប្រទេសចិនសម្រាប់ការងារអភិវឌ្ឍន៍។⁶¹

ដោយឡែក នាយករដ្ឋមន្រ្តីហ៊ុនសែនបានហៅជំនួយបរទេសចិនថាជាការផ្តល់ជំនួយដែលភាគីទាំងពីរបានដាក់បញ្ចូលជំនួយកម្ចីទៅក្នុងគម្រោងជំនួយនោះ។⁶² ការអនុគ្រោះលើជំនួយកម្ចីម្តងម្កាល ដូចជាជំនួយកម្ចីចំនួន៤លានដុល្លារអាមេរិកដែលចិនបានអនុគ្រោះសម្រាប់កម្ពុជាក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០១០ បានផ្លាស់ប្តូរជំនួយបែបកម្ចីទៅជាការផ្តល់ជំនួយវិញ ដែលជាកក្តាសក្តានុពល ដែលអាចបង្កើននូវឥទ្ធិពលចិនមកលើ កម្ពុជាផងដែរនៅពេលជំនួយកម្ចីបែបនេះត្រូវបានអនុគ្រោះ។⁶³

ជំនួយប្រាក់កម្ចីបានផ្តល់ហិរញ្ញប្បទានដើម្បីអភិវឌ្ឍហេដ្ឋារចនាសម្ព័ន្ធសម្រាប់ប្រទេសកម្ពុជា រួមទាំងផ្លូវថ្នល់។ ថតរូបដោយ Sanket Deorukhkar តាមរយៈ Unsplash.

ធនាគារគោលនយោបាយចំនួនពីរក្នុងចំណោមបីធនាគារ ក្នុងនោះមាន ធនាគារអភិវឌ្ឍន៍ចិននិងធនាគារនាំចេញនិងចូលនៃប្រទេសចិន (China Eximbank) គឺបច្ចុប្បន្នកំពុងដំណើរការនៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា។ ទោះបីការផ្តល់កម្ចីភាគច្រើនរបស់ធនាគារ China Eximbank ជាបែបលក្ខណៈពាណិជ្ជកម្មក៏ដោយ វាក៏បានផ្តល់នូវកម្ចីសម្បទានផងដែរសម្រាប់គម្រោងហេដ្ឋារចនាសម្ព័ន្ធផ្សេងៗនៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា។⁶⁴ ក្នុងអំឡុងពេលចន្លោះឆ្នាំ២០០៥និង២០១៨ ធនាគារចិនបានផ្តល់ជំនួយគាំទ្រផ្នែកហេដ្ឋារចនាសម្ព័ន្ធ ផ្លូវបានប្រវែងជាង៣០០០គម ប្រព័ន្ធធារាសាស្រ្តបានចំនួន៤៣០០០០ហិចតានិង ខ្សែកាប្តិ៍សម្រាប់ប្រព័ន្ធអគ្គីសនីបានជិត៨០០០គម។⁶⁵ ជំនួយកម្ចីនាពេលថ្មីៗដែលត្រូវបានផ្តល់ដោយធនាគារចិន China Eximbank បានជួយគាំទ្រផ្នែកខ្សែកាប្តិ៍សម្រាប់គម្រោង the Transmission Line 230 KV Project ដំណាក់កាលទី២ និងគម្រោងសាងសង់ផ្លូវជាតិលេខ៣ផងដែរ។⁶⁶ ស្រដៀងគ្នានេះផងដែរ ធនាគារអភិវឌ្ឍន៍ចិន China Development Bank បានផ្តល់ជំនួយកម្ចីចំនួន៥.៣កោដដុល្លារសម្រាប់គម្រោងចំនួន២៧គម្រោងនៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជារហូតមកដល់ពាក់កណ្តាលឆ្នាំ២០១៩។⁶⁷ បន្ថែមពីលើនេះ ធនាគារពាណិជ្ជផ្សេងៗទៀតដែលគ្រប់គ្រងដោយចិន ក្នុងនោះមានដូចជាធនាគារពាណិជ្ជនិងឧស្សាហកម្មចិននិងធនាគារចិន សុទ្ធតែមានសកម្មភាពប្រតិបត្តិការសំខាន់ៗរបស់ខ្លួននៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជាផងដែរ។⁶⁸,⁶⁹

III. គោលនយោបាយពាក់ព័ន្ធរបស់រដ្ឋាភិបាល

១- ផែនការអភិវឌ្ឃន៍យុទ្ធសាស្រ្តជាតិ (NSDP)ឆ្នាំ២០១៩-២០២៣

ផែនការNSDP​ ឆ្នាំ២០១៩-២០២៣ មានគោលបំណងជួយប្រទេសកម្ពុជាដើម្បីទទួលបានផល
ប្រយោជន៍ពីសមាហរណកម្មសេដ្ឋកិច្ចអាស៊ាននិងផ្លាស់ប្តូរប្រទេសកម្ពុជាឲ្យក្លាយទៅជាប្រទេសដែលមានប្រាក់ចំណូលមធ្យមកម្រិតខ្ពស់នៅឆ្នាំ២០៣០។⁷⁰ អ្វីដែលពាក់ព័ន្ធខ្លាំងបំផុតសម្រាប់វិនិយោគបរទេសដោយផ្ទាល់គឺបទប្បញ្ញត្តិស្តីពីការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃបរិយាកាសជារួមសម្រាប់ការអនុវត្តយុទ្ធសាស្រ្តចតុកោណកែងដំណាក់កាលពី៤។⁷¹ បរិយាកាសអំណោយផលសម្រាប់ការធ្វើអាជីវកម្មនិងវិនិយោគនឹងត្រូវបានអភិវឌ្ឃឡើងតារយៈការអនុវត្តគោលនយោបាយម៉ាក្រូសេដ្ឋកិច្ចនិងការធ្វើបច្ចុប្បន្នភាពច្បាប់ ការបង្កើតយន្តការដើម្បីដោះស្រាយវិបត្តិ និងហានិភ័យសេដ្ឋកិច្ចជាសក្តានុពលការធ្វើកំណែទម្រង់ផ្នែកពន្ធដារ ការសម្របសម្រួលសម្រាប់ការធ្វើអាជីវកម្មទើបចាប់ផ្តើមនិងការកាត់បន្ថយភាពស្មុគ្រស្មាញផ្នែករដ្ឋបាល។⁷²

២- គោលនយោបាយអភិវឌ្ឍន៍ឧស្សាហកម្មឆ្នាំ២០១៥-២០២៥ (IDP)

រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាលបានអនុម័តគោលនយោបាយអភិវឌ្ឍន៍ឧស្សាហកម្ម (IDP) ដើម្បីជួយរក្សាឲ្យបាននូវការលូតលាស់ផ្នែកសេដ្ឋកិច្ចកម្រិតខ្ពស់ប្រកបដោយបរិយាប័ន្ននិងនិរន្តរភាពតាមរយៈការបង្កើតសេដ្ឋកិច្ចបែបចម្រុះ ការពង្រឹងការប្រកួតប្រជែង និងការលើកកម្ពស់ផលិតភាព។⁷³ សូមមើលតារាងទី១០នៅក្នុងឧបសម្ព័ន្ធ១សម្រាប់ការផ្តល់ការលើកទឹកចិត្តនិងវិស័យអាទិភាព។

៣- តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេស (SEZ)

ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបានបង្កើតតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេស (SEZ) ក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០០៥ដើម្បីសម្របសម្រួលការអភិ វឌ្ឍផ្នែកនាំចេញបង្កើតការងារ និងលើកកម្ពស់ការបង្កើតភាពចម្រុះសម្បូរបែបពីវិស័យប្រពៃណីយ៍។⁷⁴ នីតិវិធីរដ្ឋបាលមានភាពងាយស្រួលនិងហេដ្ឋារចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិងគ្រឿងបរិក្ខារដែលមានគុណភាពខ្ពស់ត្រូវបានបង្កើតឡើងដើម្បីសំដៅទាក់ទាញការវិនិយោគ។⁷⁵ 3 ចំនួនពិតប្រាកដនៃតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសពុំមានភាពច្បាស់ លាស់ពិតប្រាកដទេ។ តាមរបាយការណ៍មួយបានបង្ហាញថាមានចំនួន៥៤តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសនៅឆ្នាំ២០១៩⁷⁶ ប៉ុន្តែក្នុងរបាយការណ៍មួយផ្សេងទៀតបញ្ជាក់ថាមានចំនួន៤៦តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសគិតរហូតមកដល់ខែកញ្ញា ឆ្នាំ២០២០។⁷⁷

តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសមានទីតាំងស្ថិតនៅក្នុងខេត្តព្រះសហីនុ។ ថតរូបដោយ Kim Simhort តាមរយៈ Unsplash.

ថ្វីត្បិតតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសមានការបើកចំហរសម្រាប់ក្រុមហ៊ុនទាំងក្នុងស្រុកនិងបរទេសក៏ពិតមែនស្ទើរតែក្រុមហ៊ុនទាំងអស់ដែលមានទីតាំងស្ថិតនៅក្នុងតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសគឺជាក្រុមហ៊ុនបរទេស។ តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសចិនភាគច្រើនស្ថិតនៅក្នុងតំបន់ដែលនៅចន្លោះរវាងរាជធានីភ្នំពេញ ខេត្តព្រះសីហនុ និងខេត្តកំពតព្រមទាំងស្ថិតក្នុងតំបន់មានព្រំប្រទល់ជាមួយប្រទេសវៀតណាម ដែលស្ថិតក្នុងខេត្តស្វាយរៀង។⁷⁸ ចន្លោះ ឆ្នាំ២០០៥និង២០១៨ តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសបានស្រូបយកទឹកប្រាក់បានចំនួន១.៨៩កោដដុល្លារអាមេរិក ពីគម្រោងវិនិយោគបរទេសដោយផ្ទាល់⁷⁹ ហើយក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០១៩ប៉ុណ្ណោះ ការនាំចេញពីតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសមានចំនួនរហូតដល់២.៦៩កោដដុល្លារអាមេរិក។⁸⁰

គោលនយោបាយតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសរបស់ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបានទាក់ទាញវិនិយោគិនបរទេសបានយ៉ាងច្រើនជាងតំបន់នៅខាងក្រៅតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេស ព្រមទាំងវិនិយោគិនមកពីប្រទេសថ្មីៗផងដែរ។⁸¹ ស្រដៀងគ្នានេះដែរទោះបីមានភាពស្ទាក់ស្ទើរពីក្រុមហ៊ុនអាមេរិកក្នុងការធ្វើវិនិយោគក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជាក៏ ដោយក៏មានក្រុមហ៊ុនអាមេរិកធំៗជាច្រើនបានវិនិយោគក្នុងទំហំទឹកប្រាក់ច្រើនជាង១០០លានដុល្លារអាមេរិកនៅក្នុងតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសភ្នំពេញ រួមមានក្រុមហ៊ុនភេសជ្ជៈកូកាកូឡាជាដើម។⁸²

បរិយាកាសផ្លូវច្បាប់ត្រូវបានគេលើកឡើងថាជាឧបសគ្គសម្រាប់ការធ្វើវិនិយោគ។⁸³ បន្ថែមពីលើនេះថ្វីត្បិតតែទទួលបានផលប្រយោជន៍ជាប្រយោលជាច្រើនផ្នែកសេដ្ឋកិច្ចពីគម្រោងតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសតែកម្ពុជាចាំបាច់ត្រូវធ្វើការអភិវឌ្ឍបន្ថែមទៀតទៅលើផ្នែកបរិយាកាសសម្រាប់វិនិយោគដើម្បីប្រមូលយកផលប្រយោជន៍ទាំងអស់នេះឲ្យបានកាន់ច្រើនថែមទៀត។ឧទាហរណ៍មួយគឺសហគ្រាសខ្នាតតូចនិងមធ្យមអាចមិនមានសមត្ថភាពឬជំនាញគ្រប់គ្រាន់ដើម្បីឆ្លើយតបទៅនឹងស្តង់ដារការងារអន្តរជាតិ ក៏អាចជាឧបសគ្គសម្រាប់វិនិយោគិនបរទេសដែលធ្វើពួកគេមិនចង់ចាប់ដៃគូធ្វើអាជីវកម្មជាមួយយើង។⁸⁴ សេដ្ឋកិច្ចវិទូ អ្នកបរិស្ថានវិទ្យានិងអ្នកតស៊ូមតិ សិទ្ធិមនុស្សបានចងក្រងឯកសារអំពីផលប៉ះពាល់ផ្នែកសង្គមសេដ្ឋកិច្ចដែលមានលក្ខណៈអវិជ្ជមានមួយចំនួន។⁸⁵

៤- យុទ្ធសាស្រ្តអភិវឌ្ឍវិស័យកសិកម្មឆ្នាំ២០១៩-២០២៥ និងផែនការអភិវឌ្ឍន៍ឆ្នាំ២០២០-២០២៥សម្រាប់វិ ស័យវាយនភណ្ឌនិងសំលៀកបំពាក់

រដ្ឋាភិបាលបានបង្កើតផែនការចំនួនពីរដើម្បីអភិវឌ្ឍវិស័យឧស្សាហកម្មវាយនភ័ណ្ឌ សំលៀកបំពាក់ និងកសិកម្ម។⁸⁶ ការព្យួរការអនុគ្រោះពន្ធគ្រប់ទំនេញលើកលែងអាវុធ(EBA)ដែលបានដាក់មកលើប្រទេសកម្ពុជាកន្លងមកថ្មីៗនេះដោយសហភាពអឺរ៉ុប (EBA) បានធ្វើប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបាត់សិទ្ធិក្នុងការទទួលបានការអនុគ្រោះពន្ធក្នុងការនាំចេញទំនេញទៅកាន់តំបន់អឺរ៉ុប។⁸⁷ ទោះបីយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយ សម្តេច ហ៊ុន សែន នាយករដ្ឋមន្រ្តីបានកត់សំគាល់ថាវិប្តិជម្ងឺកូវីដបានធ្វើឲ្យការបង្កផលប៉ះពាល់ដោយសារការដកប្រព័ន្ធអនុគ្រោះពន្ធរបស់សហភាពអឺរ៉ុបថាពុំមានឥទ្ធិពលអ្វីឡើយ។⁸⁸

គោលនយោបាយអភិវឌ្ឍកសិកម្មថ្មីឆ្នាំ២០២១-២០៣០⁸⁹ កំពុងត្រូវបានបង្កើតឡើងហើយនិងជួយណែនាំតម្រង់ទិសសម្រាប់ការវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស ក្នុងចំណោមវិស័យផ្សេងៗទៀត។⁹⁰

៥- ផែនទីផ្លូវសម្រាប់វិស័យទេសចរណ៍ (ឆ្នាំ២០២០-២០២៥)

រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាលបានធ្វើសេចក្តីពង្រាងផែនទីផ្លូវបីដំណាក់កាល(ឆ្នាំ២០២០-២០២៥)ដើម្បីស្តារឡើងវិញនិងធ្វើការអភិវឌ្ឍវិស័យទេសចរណ៍ឡើងវិញ។⁹¹ ទោះបីយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយគេរំពឹងថាវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេសដែលចាំបាច់គឺទំនងដូចជាមានភាពគ្រប់គ្រាន់ហើយ។⁹² ទំហំទឹកប្រាក់វិនិយោគដែលត្រូវបានឯកភាពថ្មីៗរួមមានចំនួន១៥០លានដុល្លារអាមេរិកដើម្បីអភិវឌ្ឍផ្លូវចំនួន៣៨ខ្សែនៅក្នុងខេត្តសៀមរាប និងចំនួន៣០០លានដុល្លារអាមេរិកដើម្បីសាងសង់ផ្លូវចំនួន៣៤ខ្សែនៅក្នុងខេត្តព្រះសីហនុ។⁹³

IV. ផលប៉ះពាល់ផ្នែកសេដ្ឋកិច្ច សង្គម និងបរិស្ថាន

ការកើនឡើងលំហូរចូលនៃវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេសចូលក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបានធ្វើឲ្យផលិតផលសរុបក្នុងស្រុក ប្រាក់ឈ្នួលនិងទុនបម្រុងបរទេសមានការកើនឡើង ព្រមទាំងបានកាត់បន្ថយអត្រាអត់ការងារ និងកាត់បន្ថយបញ្ហាកង្វះពាណិជ្ជមកម្មផងដែរ។⁹⁴ ទោះបីយ៉ាងណក៏ដោយ ការវិនិយោគនេះក៏នាំមកនូវផលប៉ះពាល់អវិជ្ជមានផងដែរ។

១- សកម្មភាពខុសច្បាប់

សកម្មភាពខុសច្បាប់ទាំងនេះក៏បានបង្កការរំខានដល់ការអភិវឌ្ឍសេដ្ឋកិច្ចផងដែរ ។⁹⁵ តំបន់ដែលត្រូវបានដាក់ក្រោមការត្រួតពិនិត្យដោយអន្តរជាតិគឺខេត្តព្រះសីហនុ។

បញ្ហាប្រឈមមួយកំពុងឋិតក្រោមការឃ្លាំមើលយ៉ាងដិតដល់នោះគឺសកម្មភាពល្បែងស៊ីសងខុសច្បាប់។⁹⁶ បន្ទាប់ពីប្រទេសចិនបានសន្យាផ្តល់ប្រាក់ជំនួយរាប់កោដដុល្លារសម្រាប់ការអភិវឌ្ឍហេដ្ឋារចនាសម្ព័ន្ធ នៅក្នុងខេត្តព្រះសីហនុឧស្សាហកម្មល្បែងស៊ីសងបានរីកលូតលាស់យ៉ាងឆាប់រហ័សផងដែរ។ ទោះបីយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយរាល់សកម្មភាពប្រតិបត្តិការទាំងអស់នោះមិនមែនសុទ្ធតែមានអាជ្ញាប័ណត្រឹមត្រូវនោះទេហើយការរីកលូតលាស់សកម្មភាពល្បែងស៊ីសងនេះផងដែរត្រូវបានគេសង្កេតឃើញថាមានសមាមាត្រទៅនឹងការកើនឡើងសកម្មភាពបទល្មើសផងដែរដូចជាបទល្មើសលាងសម្ងាតលុយកខ្វក់ជាដើម។⁹⁷ មិនគួរនឹកស្មានដល់ នៅខែសីហា ឆ្នាំ២០១៩ ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបានកំណត់ថាល្បែងស៊ីសងជាបទល្មើសខុសច្បាប់ដែលត្រូវបានគេមើលឃើញយ៉ាងច្បាស់ថាដោយសារតែមានសម្ពាធខ្លាំងដែលបង្កឡើងដោយសារតែសកម្មភាពរបស់ជនជាតិចិន។⁹⁸ ហេតុដូច្នេះហើយបានធ្វើឲ្យអត្រាបទល្មើសនៅក្នុងខេត្តព្រះសីហនុក៏បានធ្លាក់ចុះវិញ ខ្លះក៏ប៉ុន្តែវាបានធ្វើឲ្យប៉ះពាល់ទៅដល់លំហូរចូលវិនិយោគភាគច្រើនពីប្រជាជនចិនផងដែរ។⁹⁹ គម្រោងសំណង់ទាំងឡាយត្រូវបានគាំងឬលុបចោលហើយតាមរបាយការណ៍បានបង្ហាញថាមានការខកខានស្ទើរតែនៅគ្រប់ទីកន្លែងការងារក្នុងការបើកប្រាក់ឈ្នួលឲ្យពលករកម្មករក្នុងស្រុកនិងមកពីចិនផងដែរ។¹⁰⁰ បន្ថែមពីលើនេះ តាមរបាយការណ៍ក៏បានបង្ហាញដែរថាមានក្រុមហ៊ុនមួយចំនួនមិនបានគោរពតាមបម្រាមហាមឃាត់មិនឲ្យលែងល្បែងស៊ីសងតាមអនឡាញទេ។¹⁰¹

ជីវៈចម្រុះដ៏មានតម្លៃរបស់ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាទទួលរងផលប៉ះពាល់ដោយសារតែអំពើជួញដូរសត្វព្រៃខុសច្បាប់ ប៉ុន្តែក៏មានជម្រកសត្វព្រៃដែលសត្វព្រៃដូចជាសត្វស្វាប្រភេទនេះត្រូវបានសង្រ្គោះពីអំពើជួញដូរខុសច្បាប់ត្រូវបានស្តារសម្បទាឡើងវិញផងដែរ។ ថតរូបដោយ Slavena Peneva តាមរយៈ Unsplash.

តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសខេត្តព្រះសីហនុត្រូវបានគេលើកឡើងថាមានការពាក់ព័ន្ធទៅនឹងទីផ្សារងងឹតសម្រាប់ការការជួញដូរផលិតផលសត្វព្រៃ¹⁰² រួមទាំងការជួញដូរសត្វបក្សីកម្រនិងប្រភេទសត្វល្មូនផងដែរ។[Ref]Sarah Heinrich, Joshua V. Ross, Thomas N.E. Gray, Steven Delean, Nick Marx, and Phillip Cassey. 2020. “Plight of the commons: 17 years of wildlife trafficking in Cambodia” in Biological Conservation Volume 241. Accessed July 30, 2021.[/ref],¹⁰³ ប្រការនេះហើយបានធ្វើឲ្យសកម្មភាពបទល្មើសបរបាញ់សត្វព្រៃមានការកើនឡើងគួរឲ្យកត់សំគាល់ផងដែរដោយសារតែមានតម្រូវការខ្ពស់ពីអតិថិជនជនជាតិចិន។¹⁰⁴ ក្នុងនោះផងដែរដោយសារតែមានជំនឿលើឧសថបុរាណសត្វកម្រក្នុងការព្យាបាលជម្ងឺក្នុងអំឡុងពេលការរាតត្បាតជម្ងឺកូវីដ១៩ ក៏បានធ្វើឲ្យសកម្មភាពបទល្មើសជួញដូរសត្វព្រៃនេះមានការកើនឡើងដែរ។¹⁰⁵,¹⁰⁶

២- គុណភាពបរិស្ថានមានការធ្លាក់ចុះ

ច្បាប់ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាទំនងជាឲ្យអាទិភាពទៅលើការអភិវឌ្ឍសេដ្ឋកិច្ចជាងការការពារបរិស្ថាន។ តាមការសិក្សាឆ្នាំ២០១៩បានអះអាងថាការអភិវឌ្ឍសេដ្ឋកិច្ចបានបង្កឲ្យមានការធ្លាក់ចុះគុណភាពផ្នែកបរិស្ថានផងដែរ។¹⁰⁷

៣- ជម្លាះដីធ្លី

ក្នុងយុទ្ធនាការរបស់ខ្លួនដើម្បីទាក់ទាញវិនិយោគបរទេស ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាបានផ្តល់គម្រោងសម្បទានដីសេដ្ឋកិច្ច (ELCs) ទៅឲ្យភាគក្រុមហ៊ុនវិនិយោគ ដែលភាគច្រើនជាក្រុមហ៊ុនចិន វៀតណាម និងកូរ៉េខាងត្បូង។¹⁰⁸ គម្រោងទាំងនេះជាកិច្ចសន្យាជួលដែលមានរយៈពេលវែង អនុញ្ញាតិឲ្យធ្វើការអភិវឌ្ឍផ្នែកកសិឧស្សាហកម្ម។¹⁰⁹ ទោះបីយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយដោយសារសកម្មភាពវិនិយោគបរទេសទាំងនេះក្រុមសង្គមស៊ីវិលបានសង្កេតឃើញមានការកើនឡើងយ៉ាងខ្លាំងនូវករណីបណ្តេញប្រជាពលរដ្ឋចេញដោយការបង្ខិតបង្ខំ¹¹⁰ និងសកម្មភាពណ្តេញចេញដោយគ្មានការចរចាឬការសងសំណងបានសមរម្យទេសម្រាប់ប្រជាពលរដ្ឋដែលរងគ្រោះដោយសារគម្រោងវិនិយោគនេះ។¹¹¹ ហេតុនេះហើយបានបង្កឲ្យមានជម្លោះដែលកំពុងកើតមានឡើងរវាងវិនិយោគិនដែលមានសិទ្ធិកាន់កាប់ដីតាមផ្លូវច្បាប់ជាមួយនិងសមាជិកសហគមន៍ដែលពួកគាត់បានកាន់កាប់និងអាស្រ័ផលលើដីតាមបែបប្រពៃណីជាយូរមកហើយ ។¹¹² ស្រដៀងគ្នានេះផងដែរការតាមដានត្រួតពិនិត្យទៅលើសកម្មភាពក្រុមហ៊ុនសម្បទានដីសេដ្ឋកិច្ចមិនបានល្អត្រឹមត្រូវ ក៏ជាឪកាសធ្វើឲ្យក្រុមហ៊ុនទាំងឡាយនោះមិនបានអនុវត្តត្រឹមត្រូវទៅតាមផែនការដែលបានឯកភាពគ្នានោះទេ។¹¹³,¹¹⁴ រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាលបានផ្អាកការផ្តល់សិទ្ធិសម្បទានដីហើយតាមរយបាយការណ៍បានបង្ហាញថាកំពុងតែដាក់គម្រោងដីសម្បទានទាំងឡាយដែលកំពុងមានស្រាប់ក្រោមការត្រួតពិនិត្យផងដែរ។ សម្រាប់ឧទាហរណ៍អំពីតំបន់ជម្លាះដីក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា សូមចូលមើលក្នុងកម្មវិធីតាមដានព័ត៌មានអំពីជម្លោះដីធ្លីក្នុងវិបសាយរបស់អង្គការទិន្នន័យអំពីការអភិវឌ្ឍកម្ពុជា(ODC)។¹¹⁵

៤- អសមភាពយេនឌ័រនៅក្នុងទីផ្សារការងារ

ថ្វីត្បិតមានអត្ថបទសំណេរជាច្រើនត្រូវបានរៀបចំឡើងដើម្បីវិភាគទៅលើឥទ្ធិពលនៃការវិនិយោគបរទេសទៅលើទីផ្សារការងារក៏ដោយក៏នៅតែមានភស្តុតាងតិចតួចប៉ុណ្ណោះពាក់ព័ន្ធទៅនឹងផលប៉ះពាល់ទៅលើយេនឌ័រ។ ការស្រាវជ្រាវដែលត្រូវបានធ្វើឡើងនៅឆ្នាំ២០២០ដោយវិទ្យាស្ថានធនាគារអភិវឌ្ឍន៍អាស៊ីក៏មិនបានរកឃើញភស្តុតាងបញ្ជាក់ថាការវិនិយោគបរទេសបានជួយកាត់បន្ថយគម្លាតប្រាក់ឈ្នួលសម្រាប់យេនឌ័រទាំងនៅក្នុងវិស័យវាយនភ័ណ្ឌនិងវិស័យផលិតកម្មផ្សេងៗទេ។¹¹⁶ ទោះបីយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយ តាមការស្ទាបស្ទង់មតិបំបែកតាមគ្រួសារ ដែលត្រូវបានធ្វើឡើងជាផ្នែកមួយនៃការស្រាវជ្រាវបានបង្ហាញថាគម្លាតប្រាក់ឈ្នួលសម្រាប់យេនឌ័រនៅក្នុងវិស័យផលិតកម្មជាផ្លូវការមានការធ្លាក់ចុះតាមរយៈការវិនិយោគបរទេសចំណែកឯក្នុងវិស័យវាយនភ័ណ្ឌមិនធ្លាក់ទេដោយសារវាជាវិស័យគ្រឹះសម្រាប់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចហើយដែលភាគច្រើនស្រ្តីគឺជាកម្មករក្នុងវិស័យនេះ។¹¹⁷

ស្រ្តីកម្ពុជាជាទូទៅបម្រើការងារនៅក្នុងវិស័យឧស្សាហកម្មកាត់ដេរ ទាំងនៅក្នុងផ្នែករោងចក្រ ឬប្រកបរបរលក់ដូរឥវ៉ាន់នៅក្នុងផ្សារ។ ថតរូបដោយ Chetan Hireholi.

V. អនុសាសន៍

ខណៈពេលដែលរាជរដ្ឋាភិបាលបានបង្កើតកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងវិនិយោគបរទេសដែលវានឹងបន្តផ្តល់ផលប្រយោជន៍ដល់កម្ពុជានិរន្តរភាពនៃអត្ថប្រយោជន៍ទាំងនេះ ការអនុវត្តតាមប្រការមួយចំនួនៗក្នុងកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងនិងការសាយភាយនៃអត្ថប្រយោជន៍នៅទូទាំងគ្រប់វិស័យទាំងអស់ក្នុងសង្គមគឺសុទ្ធតែជាផ្នែកដែលនឹងទទួលបានផលប្រយោជន៍តាមរយៈការគិតគូរពិចារណាបន្ថែមទៅលើវិស័យវិនិយោគបរទេសនេះ។ ខាងក្រោមនេះ គឺជាអនុសាសន៍មួយចំនួនដែលគួរពិចារណា៖

១- វឌ្ឍនៈភាពអំពីការអភិវឌ្ឍគោលនយោបាយនិងការផ្តល់សច្ចាប័ននិងការអនុវត្តកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងគួរតែត្រូវ បានកត់ត្រាតាមដាន

ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាកំពុងតែធ្វើការផ្លាស់ប្តូរផ្លូវច្បាប់មួយចំនួនដែលវានាំផលប៉ះពាល់ទៅដល់ការវិនិយោគបរទេសហើយមានកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងមួយចំនួនមិនទាន់ត្រូវបានផ្តល់សច្ចាប័ណនៅឡើយទេ។ តាមរយៈឯកសារផ្លូវច្បាស់ទាំងនេះដែលនឹងត្រូវបានអនុវត្តដែលត្រូវតម្រូវឲ្យមានទំនួលខុសត្រូវតាមផ្លូវច្បាប់ដើម្បីកំណត់រយៈពេលអុនវត្តពន្ធអាករ ដូចបានកំណត់ក្នុងកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀង RCEP និងការធ្វើឲ្យនីតិវិធីរដ្ឋបាលមានភាពងាយស្រួលនិងមានប្រសិទ្ធិភាពដូចបានកំណត់ក្នុងច្បាប់ស្តីពីការវិនិយោគ ក្នុងចំណោមច្បាប់ផ្សេងៗទៀត។ ការតាមដានលើការផ្តល់សច្ចាប័ណ
ការបង្កើតឯកសារពាក់ព័ន្ធផ្សេងៗនិងការផ្លាស់ប្តូរទៅលើនីតិវិធីច្បាប់ព្រមទាំងការផ្លាស់ប្តូរផ្សេងៗស្របតាមច្បាប់អន្តរជាតិដូចបានគូសបញ្ជាក់ដោយច្បាប់និងកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងពាក់ព័ន្ធវានឹងជួយគាំទ្រទៅដល់ការបង្កើតបរិយាកាសសមស្របសម្រាប់ការវិនិយោគប្រកបដោយការយល់គ្នាបានយ៉ាងងាយនិងប្រកបដោយតម្លាភាពផងដែរ។

អ្វីគួរឲ្យកត់សំគាល់គឺថាប្រទេសកម្ពុជាអាចប្រឈមការបាត់បង់ថវិកាចំណូលឋិតក្រោមលក្ខខណ្ឌកិច្ច ព្រមព្រៀង RCEP រហូតដល់ចំនួន 1.24% នៃផលិតផលសរុបក្នុងស្រុកឆ្នាំ២០១៩ ឬចំនួន USD $270 លានដុល្លារអាមេរិក។¹¹⁸,¹¹⁹ ការតាមដានជាក់ស្តែង និងការប៉ាន់ស្មានការខាតបង់ផ្នែកសេដ្ឋកិច្ចនិងអត្ថប្រយោជន៍នឹងជួយធ្វើឲ្យមានការយល់កាន់តែច្បាស់អំពីផលប៉ះពាល់ដោយសារកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងវិនិយោគបែបនេះហើយស្របគ្នានោះដែរក៏បានបង្កើតជាមូលដ្ឋានភស្តុតាងកាន់តែរឹងមាំដែលភាគីពាក់ព័ន្ធអាចទាញយកបានសម្រាប់យកធ្វើការតស៊ូមតិដើម្បីការផ្លាស់ប្តូរគោលនយោបាយនិងគណនេយ្យភាពដែលកាន់តែប្រសើរថែមទៀត។

អនុសាសន៍ពាក់ព័ន្ធមួយទៀតសម្រាប់ការតាមដានការអនុវត្តគឺការអនុវត្តតាមចំណុចឬប្រការផ្សេងៗ ដូចបានព្រមព្រៀងគ្នាហើយនៅក្នុងកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងនិងទៅតាមតម្រូវការឬលក្ខខណ្ឌដូចមានចែងក្នុងច្បាប់។ កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងមួយចំនួនដូចជា ACIA អាចទាមទារឲ្យមានកំណែទម្រង់ច្បាប់ដើម្បីឆ្លើយតបទៅនឹងតម្រូវការឬលក្ខខណ្ឌនៃកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀង។ ការតាមដានសកម្មភាពនៃការអនុវត្តរបស់រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាលវានឹងជួយបង្កើននូវគណនេយ្យភាពនិងតម្លាភាព។

២- រៀបចំការស្រាវជ្រាវអំពីផលប៉ះពាល់លើយេនឌ័រដោយសារការវិនិយោផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស

ស្របពេលដែលមានការយល់ដឹងថាការចូលរួមរបស់ស្រ្តីនៅក្នុងទីផ្សារការងារមានភាពខុសប្លែកគ្នាទៅតាមវិស័យនិងផលប៉ះពាល់ដោយសារការចូលរួមសកម្មភាពរបស់វិនិយោគបរទេសក្នុងវិស័យជាក់លាក់ផ្សេងៗហើយមិនថាស្រ្តីទទួលបានផលប្រយោជន៍បែបណាពីឪកាសនិងការលើកទឹកចិត្តផ្នែកសេដ្ឋកិច្ចដែលពាក់ព័ន្ធនោះទេវានៅតែជាចំណុចមួយដែលយើងត្រូវសិក្សាអំពីវា។ បើគ្មានការយល់ដឹងពីផលប៉ះពាល់លើស្រ្តីនោះទេការអភិវឌ្ឍប្រកបដោយចីរភាពនិងបរិយាបន្ននឹងមិនអាចសម្រេចបានឡើយ។ ហេតុដូច្នេះហើយការយល់ដឹងពីផលប៉ះពាល់លើយេនឌ័រដោយសារការវិនិយោគបរទេសវានឹងជួយលើកកម្ពស់ដល់កិច្ចខិតខំប្រឹងប្រែងរបស់កម្ពុជានៅក្នុងន័យនេះ។

៣- ការរៀបចំការសិក្សាដើម្បីកំណត់អំពីបញ្ហារាំងស្ទះចំពោះផលប៉ះពាល់ដោយប្រយោលបែបវិជ្ជមាន នៅក្នុងតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេស

តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេសត្រូវបានបង្កើតឡើងបានយ៉ាងល្អប្រសើរនៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា ក៏ប៉ុន្តែផលប៉ះពាល់ជាវិជ្ជមានដែលត្រូវបានគេលើកឡើងជាញឹកញាប់ជាទូទៅនៅតែពិបាកកំណត់ដោយសារតែគម្លាតផ្នែកសមត្ថភាពនិងការអប់រំព្រមទាំងមានការលំបាកសម្រាប់សហគ្រាស្តខ្នាតតូចនិងមធ្យមដើម្បីឆ្លើយតបទៅនឹងតម្រូវការផ្នែកច្បាប់ ក្នុងចំណោមរឿងផ្សេងៗទៀត។ ការស្រាវជ្រាវផ្តោតលើសកម្មភាពដើម្បីស្វែងយល់ជាដំបូងអំពីតម្រូវការនិងបញ្ហារាំងស្ទះទាំងឡាយដែលទាំងបុគ្គលនិងសហគ្រាស្តខ្នាតតូចនិងមធ្យមបានពើបប្រទះដើម្បីទាញយកផលប្រយោជន៍ពីតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិសេស បន្ទាប់មកធ្វើការកំណត់និងអនុវត្តសកម្មភាពទាំងឡាយដើម្បីឆ្លើយតបទៅនឹងតម្រូវការទាំងនេះ និងការដោះស្រាយបញ្ហារាំងស្ទះវាជាការធ្វើដំណើរលើផ្លូវដ៏វែងឆ្ងាយមួយដើម្បីជម្រុញឲ្យអត្ថប្រយោជន៍នៃតំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចលេចចេញជាផ្លែផ្កាបានស្របពេលគ្នានឹងការជម្រុញវិនិយោគិនបរទេសឲ្យចូលរួមក្នុងភាពជាដៃគូធុរកិច្ចជាមួយនិងសហគ្រាស្តនិងបុគ្គលនៅក្នុងស្រុករបស់ខ្លួន។

៤- ការធ្វើផែនទីវិនិយោគិនសាជីវកម្មដើម្បីគាំទ្រការតស៊ូមតិលើបញ្ហាបរិស្ថាននិងដីធ្លី

ការតស៊ូមតិលើបញ្ហាបរិស្ថាននិងដីធ្លីគឺមានភាពខ្លាំងក្លានៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា។ ទោះបីយ៉ាងណាក៏ ដោយដោយសារតែវាមានការពាក់ព័ន្ធទៅនឹងវិនិយោគបរទេស ការតស៊ូមតិគឺមានភាពស្មុគស្មាញដោយសារតែទំនួលខុសត្រូវចំពោះសង្គមរបស់ក្រុមហ៊ុននៅតែជាជម្រើសនៅឡើយ ហើយរបាយការណ៍អំពីការគ្រប់គ្រងក្រុមហ៊ុនចុងក្រោយរបស់សហគ្រាស្តក៏មិនទាន់មានតម្រូវការនៅឡើយទេ។ ក្នុងន័យនេះ ការធានាឲ្យបាននូវភាពត្រឹមត្រូវរបស់ក្រុមហ៊ុនគឺជាទំនួលខុសត្រូវហើយវាជារឿងលំបាកធ្វើ។ ហេតុដូច្នេះហើយ ផែនទីវិនិយោគិនសាជីវកម្មនិងការបើកចំហរទិន្នន័យនេះ គឺមានសារៈប្រយោជន៍ដើម្បីគាំទ្រដល់កិច្ចខិតខំប្រឹងប្រែងដែលកំពុងបន្តក្នុងវិស័យបរិស្ថាននិងដីធ្លី។

៥- ល្បែងខុសច្បាប់-ការតាមដានត្រួតពិនិត្យនិងការចងក្រងឯកសារអំពីសកម្មភាព

ការកើនឡើងនូវសកម្មភាពល្បែងស៊ីសងខុសច្បាប់និងសកម្មភាពពាក់ព័ន្ធខុសច្បាប់ផ្សេងៗទៀតគឺជាបញ្ហាកង្វល់នៅក្នុងតំបន់ទាំងឡាយដែលមានអត្រាវិនិយោគបរទេសពីចិនកម្រិតខ្ពស់ ដូចជានៅខេត្តព្រះសីហនុជាដើម។ ការចងក្រងឯកសារនិងការស៊ើបអង្កេតលើសកម្មភាពទាំងនេះត្រូវបានធ្វើឡើង ក៏ប៉ុន្តែសកម្មភាពទាំងនេះ នៅតែបន្តកើតឡើងហើយកម្រិតគ្រោះថ្នាក់ជាសក្តានុពលទៅលើទាំងប្រជាជនកម្ពុជានិងចិនមិនត្រូវបានគេដឹងនៅឡើយទេ។ ការតាមដានត្រួតពិនិត្យដោយឯករាជ្យជាបន្តទៀតលើសកម្មភាពទាំងនេះ មានការគាំទ្រដោយការចងក្រងឯកសារជាប្រព័ន្ធគឺជាជំហានដំបូងដ៏មានឥទ្ធិពលក្នុងការដោះស្រាយបញ្ហានេះ។

Annex 1

តារាង១៖ បម្រែបម្រួលនៃវិនិយោគផ្ទាល់ពីបរទេស នៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា (ឆ្នាំ២០១៨-២០១៩)¹²⁰

ប្រភព៖ UNCTAD –ទិន្នន័យចុងក្រោយបង្អស់

តារា២៖ បម្រែបម្រួលនៃវិនិយោគបរទេសដែលត្រូវបានឯកភាពតាមវិស័យ(ឆ្នាំ២០១៧-២០២០ គិតជា លានដុល្លារអាមេរិក)¹²¹

ប្រភព៖ ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាអភិវឌ្ឍកម្ពុជា (ធនាគារជាតិកម្ពុជា ស្ថិតិរូបិយវត្ថុនិងសេដ្ឋកិច្ច ខែតុលា ឆ្នាំ២០២០)

តារាង៣៖ ឧទាហរណ៍អំពីក្រុមហ៊ុនបរទេសកំពុងវិនិយោគនៅក្នុងវិស័យសំណង់ក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា  

តារាង៤៖ ឧទាហរណ៍អំពីក្រុមហុនបរទេសកំពុងវិនិយោគនៅក្នុងវិស័យមិនមែនវាយនភណ្ឌនៅក្នុងប្រទេស កម្ពុជ  

តារាង៥៖ ឧទាហរណ៍អំពីក្រុមហ៊ុនវិនិយោគបរទេសកំពុងវិនិយោគនៅក្នុងវិស័យកាត់ដេរនៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា  

តារាង៦៖ឧទាហរណ៍អំពីក្រុមហ៊ុនវិនិយោគបរទេសកំពុងវិនិយោគនៅក្នុងវិស័យសេវាកម្មនៅក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា  

តារាង៧៖ ប្រការផ្សេងៗមានចែងក្នុងសន្ធិសញ្ញាស្តីពីការវិនិយោគទ្វេរភាគីសម្រាប់កម្ពុជា  

តារា៨៖ កិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងដែលត្រូវបានជ្រើសរើសចេញពីសេចក្តីប្រកាសរួមឆ្នាំ២០១៨រវាងកម្ពុជានិង PRC  

តារាង៩៖ ប្រភេទជំនួយហិរញ្ញវត្ថុចិនសម្រាប់ការងារអភិវឌ្ឍ  

តារាងទី១០៖ គោលនយោបាយអភិវឌ្ឍឧស្សាហកម្ម(ឆ្នាំ២០១៥-២០២៥)¹²³

The post ក្តាជម្រុញផ្សេងៗសម្រាប់ការធ្វើវិនិយោគបរទេសក្នុងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា first appeared on Open Development Mekong.

Introduction

Over the past decade, Cambodia has recorded an average real growth rate¹ of 7.7%.² Reaching lower middle-income status in 2015,³ Cambodia’s economy remains one of the fastest-growing economies globally. Foreign direct investment (“FDI”)⁴ is a key contributor to this.⁵ FDI declined in 2020 and 2021 compared to 2019, as a result of the pandemic.⁶ Regardless, analysts project economic growth in 2021.⁷

Building in Sihanoukville. Photo by Sim Kimhort via Unsplash.

I. Geopolitical Drivers and Relevant Sectors

Geopolitical drivers

Cambodia is downstream on the Mekong River, creating conflicts of interest regarding water resources. Major players in the region include Vietnam, Thailand, China and the US. According to the National Bank of Cambodia, in 2019, 42% of FDI came from China, followed by South Korea (11%), Vietnam (7%), Japan and Singapore (6% each), as shown in Graph 1.⁸ Approved FDI over time shows slightly different numbers (See Graph 2), in part due to the fact that approved FDI includes projects that may not come into fruition. See also Tables 1 and 2 in Annex 1, which show that reported amounts of FDI in Cambodia in 2019 vary between USD $3.5 billion and USD $3.7 billion.⁹

Graph 1: Percentage of FDI Inflow by Nation (2019) 

Graph 2: Approved FDI by Country (1994-2019) 

China has been Cambodia’s largest investor since 2013¹⁰ and a key political ally. Since the beginning of China and Cambodia’s current economic relationship in 2006,¹¹ it has become a “comprehensive strategic cooperation partnership” supported by mega-infrastructure projects that are part of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).¹²

In contrast to its global investment,¹³ China’s investment in Cambodia has increased steadily between 2015 and 2019.¹⁴ USD $860 million of Chinese FDI was approved in the first 11 months of 2020.¹⁵ China is Cambodia’s largest trade partner with total trade reaching USD $8.53 billion in 2019,¹⁶ with a committed bilateral trade volume of USD $10 billion by 2023.¹⁷ In addition, Chinese-aided projects are often required to be carried out by Chinese firms.¹⁸

Cambodia has not been an attractive destination for US FDI. Nevertheless, some American companies have maintained investments in-country, and the Mekong-US Partnership (2020) promises significant new investment.¹⁹ Further, the new US International Development Finance Corporation has promised loans in millions of USD to expand access to financial services.²⁰

Relevant Sectors

FDI in Cambodia is concentrated in construction and real estate, non-garment manufacturing, garment manufacturing, and services. Tourism was previously second highest²¹, but was gravely affected by the pandemic²². The World Bank reports USD $1.75 billion in total approved investments in 2020²³, although the first 7 months saw approvals of only USD $25 million²⁴.

The pandemic impacted investment in construction and real estate, but had a minimal impact on non-garment manufacturing.²⁵ See Tables 3-6 in Annex 1 for examples of enterprises that have invested in Cambodia’s top sectors.

Workers on a building in Phnom Penh. Photo by Jeanne Crump via Unsplash.

II. Legal Framework, Regional, Bilateral Trade Agreements, and Loans

Legal Framework

Overall, Cambodia is an attractive environment for foreign investors. Most sectors are open to foreign ownership through FDI, and the country has a liberal investment regime. This has resulted in many trade agreements as well as foreign loans.

While legal frameworks supporting FDI exist, they remain ambiguous. Additionally, although commercial arbitration is legally available, in practice its availability is limited and there is little information in the public domain on arbitration decisions.²⁶

There are reports that investors lack confidence in the judicial system,²⁷ and so have preferred to resolve commercial disputes through negotiations facilitated by the Ministry of Commerce, the CDC, or the Cambodian Chamber of Commerce.²⁸

1. The Law on Investment (1994, amended 2003); Draft Law on Investment (2021)

Cambodia’s Law on Investment regulates FDI approval and incentivizes “qualified investment projects”²⁹ through tax relief and import duty exemptions.³⁰ It grants all investors the right to freely purchase and remit foreign currencies abroad to discharge their investment-related financial obligations.³¹ Importantly, the Law guarantees that foreign investments will be generally treated like domestic investments, except that foreign-owned companies may not own land.³² Article 20 provides for dispute resolution.³³

An office building in Phnom Penh. Photo by Vanna Phon via Unsplash.

On October 15, 2021 a new Law on Investment was promulgated.³⁴ It obligates the RGC to protect investment in accordance with international law and is intended to attract investment and enhance economic diversification and competitiveness through both tax and non-tax preferences.³⁵ It envisions simplified registration and monitoring procedures.³⁶

2. International Commercial Arbitration (2006)

The 2006 Law on Commercial Arbitration is modeled on the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law Model Law.³⁷ Since its launch in 2013, the National Arbitration Centre, now called the National Commercial Arbitration Centre (NCAC),³⁸ has administered 27 proceedings worth approximately USD $80 million.³⁹ New procedural rules were adopted on March 28, 2021 to align with international best practices.⁴⁰

Trade Agreements

1.     Protections in Cambodia’s Bilateral Investment Treaties

Cambodia’s Bilateral Investment Treaties (BIT) include internationally understood clauses that are protective of foreign investors. These include fair and equitable treatment, non-discrimination, protection and security, expropriation, and most favoured nation clauses.⁴¹ See Table 7 in Annex 1 for a list of relevant clauses.

2.    Agreements with China

Cambodia is party to a variety of agreements with China, including the Joint Communique between the Kingdom of Cambodia and the People’s Republic of China (2018)⁴²; the 2020 Cambodia-China FTA (CCFTA)⁴³; and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)⁴⁴. The CCFTA⁴⁵ and the RCEP have yet to be ratified by the RGC.

Once ratified, the CCFTA removes tariffs from almost all goods exported and imported between China and Cambodia.⁴⁶ It also simplifies administrative procedures; introduces clear dispute resolution mechanisms; and fosters e-commerce.⁴⁷ Cambodia will also reportedly open the services sector to China, including sea transport.⁴⁸ These measures could increase trade between China and Cambodia by up to 25%,⁴⁹ and make Cambodia a more attractive FDI destination relative to its neighbors.⁵⁰

China has provided funding for Cambodia to restore the Angkor Wat complex. Photo by Peter Borter via Unsplash.

The RCEP is intended to support continuing economic integration,⁵¹ but experts note that multiple tariff schedules are to be determined, with implementation periods of potentially 20 years as agreed by Cambodia.⁵² Further, state-owned enterprises are not covered. 

3.   2012 ASEAN Comprehensive Investment Agreement (ACIA)

Cambodia is a party to the 2012 ACIA.⁵³ It includes several substantive investment protections commonly found in bilateral investment treaties (BIT).⁵⁴ It is distinguished from other multilateral investment treaties and FTAs as it is enforceable by an investor-state dispute settlement system or a regional arbitration center.⁵⁵ Transparency and predictability requirements of the ACIA mean that countries, including Cambodia, may need to undertake sustained regulatory reform.⁵⁶

Loans

One of the three components of FDI flows is intercompany loans (also known as “FDI debt”).⁵⁷ FDI debt differs from concessional loans,⁵⁸ and may only make up a small portion of investment, as is the case for China.⁵⁹ Chinese financing for a project may be provided through multiple finance arrangements, complicating categorization.⁶⁰ Table 9 in Annex 1 indicates the types of Chinese financial assistance for development.⁶¹

While Prime Minister Hun Sen refers to Chinese foreign assistance as “aid,” both parties include “loans” in “aid”.⁶² Occasional loan forgiveness, such as the USD $4 million that China forgave Cambodia in 2010, transforms loans into aid, potentially increasing the influence of China over Cambodia until loans are forgiven.⁶³

Loans have financed the development of Cambodia’s infrastructure, including roads. Photo by Sanket Deorukhkar via Unsplash.

Two of China’s three “policy banks”, the China Development Bank and the Export-Import Bank of China (China Eximbank) are active in Cambodia. While most of China Eximbank’s lending is commercial, it has also provided concessional lending for infrastructure projects in Cambodia.⁶⁴ During 2005-2018, the bank supported over 3,000 km of highways, 430,000 hectares of irrigation, and nearly 8,000 km of transmission lines.⁶⁵ Recent loans from China Eximbank financed the Transmission Line 230 KV Project Phase II and the National Road No.3 Construction Project.⁶⁶ Similarly, the China Development Bank loaned US$5.3 billion for 27 projects in Cambodia as of mid-2019.⁶⁷ In addition, China’s state-owned commercial banks, namely the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China and Bank of China, have significant operations in Cambodia.⁶⁸,⁶⁹

III. Relevant Government Policies

1. The National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) 2019-2023

The National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) 2019-2023 is intended to help Cambodia to benefit from ASEAN Economic Integration and turn the nation into an Upper-Middle-Income Country by 2030.⁷⁰ The most relevant for FDI is the provision on the development of the “(2) overarching environment for the implementation of the [Rectangular Strategy Phase IV]”.⁷¹ A favorable environment for business and investment will be developed by implementing macroeconomic policies and updating laws; developing mechanisms to deal with potential economic crises and risks; reforming the taxation system; facilitating start-ups; and decreasing administrative complexity.⁷²

2. The 2015–25 Industrial Development Policy (IDP)

The RGC has adopted the Industrial Development Policy (IDP) to help maintain sustainable and inclusive high economic growth through economic diversification, strengthening competitiveness and promoting productivity.⁷³ See Table 10 in Annex 1 for motivations and priority sectors.

3. Special Economic Zones (SEZ)

Cambodia initiated special economic zones (SEZ) in 2005 to facilitate export development, create employment, and promote diversification from traditional sectors.⁷⁴ Streamlined administrative procedures and high-quality infrastructure and utilities are meant to attract investment.⁷⁵ There is some uncertainty as to the actual number of SEZs. One report indicated 54 SEZs by 2019,⁷⁶ but another identified 46 as of September, 2020.⁷⁷

A special economic zone is located in Sihanoukville. Photo via Kim Simhort via Unsplash.

Although SEZs are open to both domestic and foreign firms, almost all firms located in the SEZs are foreign. Most Chinese SEZs are located within the corridor between Phnom Penh, Sihanoukville and Kampot, as well as areas bordering Vietnam in Svay Rieng.⁷⁸ Between 2005 and 2018, SEZs attracted USD $1.89 billion in FDI,⁷⁹ and in 2019 alone, exports from SEZs amounted to USD $2.69 billion.⁸⁰

Cambodia’s SEZ policy has attracted a broader spectrum of foreign investors than outside of SEZs, as well as investors from new countries.⁸¹ Similarly, despite the reluctance of American companies to invest in Cambodia, several large American companies have invested more than USD $100 million in the Phnom Penh SEZ, including Coca-Cola.⁸²

The regulatory environment has been cited as a barrier to investment.⁸³ Additionally, while SEZs potentially have spillover benefits, the Cambodian environment needs to be further developed in order to reap these benefits. For example, domestic SMEs may not have the capacity or skill to meet certain international standards, which can deter foreign investors from engaging in business partnerships.⁸⁴ Economists, environmentalists, and human rights advocates have documented other negative socioeconomic consequences.⁸⁵

4. 2019–25 Agriculture Sector Development Strategy and (2020-25) Development Plan for Garment and Textiles

The government has developed two plans to develop the Agriculture⁸⁶ and Garment and Textiles industries.⁸⁷ Cambodia’s recent suspension from the EU’s Everything But Arms (EBA) initiative stripped the country of its preferential export rights to the EU.⁸⁸ However, Prime Minister Hun Sen has noted that the COVID pandemic has had the effect of nullifying the impact of this action by the EU.⁸⁹

A new Agriculture Development Policy 2021-2030 is being developed⁹⁰ and will guide FDI, among other things.⁹¹

5. Roadmap for Tourism (2020-25)

The RGC has drafted a three-stage roadmap (2020–25) to restore and develop the tourism sector.⁹² However, it is expected that the necessary FDI is unlikely to be sufficiently available.⁹³ Recent approved investment includes USD $150 million to develop 38 roads in Siem Reap, and USD $300 million to build 34 roads in the province of Sihanoukville.⁹⁴

IV. Economic, Social, and Environmental Consequences

Increasing FDI inflows to Cambodia has driven an increase in GDP, wages, and foreign reserves, as well as a decrease in unemployment and trade deficit.⁹⁵ However, this investment has also had negative impacts.

1. Illicit Activities

The Kingdom’s economic development has been undercut by illicit activities.⁹⁶ A region that has been placed under international scrutiny is Sihanoukville.

One issue under close watch is illicit gambling operations.⁹⁷ After China pledged billions of dollars for infrastructure in Sihanoukville, the gambling industry expanded rapidly. However not all operations were licensed, and this expansion has been observed to be proportional to a spike in criminal activities such as money laundering.⁹⁸ In August 2019, Cambodia unexpectedly criminalized online gambling, widely seen as a result of Chinese pressure.⁹⁹ This has decreased the crime rate in Sihanoukville, but has also impacted mostly Chinese FDI inflows.¹⁰⁰ Construction projects were stalled or abandoned and reports show widespread failure to pay wages of laborers from both Cambodia and China.¹⁰¹ In addition, reports also reveal that some companies have ignored the online gambling ban.¹⁰²

Cambodia’s great biodiversity is impacted by the illegal wildlife trade, but there are sanctuaries where animals like this monkey rescued from illegal trade are rehabilitated. Photo by Slavena Peneva via Unsplash.

The Sihanoukville SEZ is associated with black-market trades in wildlife products,¹⁰³ including songbirds and reptiles.[Ref]Sarah Heinrich, Joshua V. Ross, Thomas N.E. Gray, Steven Delean, Nick Marx, and Phillip Cassey. 2020. “Plight of the commons: 17 years of wildlife trafficking in Cambodia” in Biological Conservation Volume 241. Accessed July 30, 2021.[/ref],¹⁰⁴ This adds to a significant rise in bushmeat poaching in Cambodia, driven by Chinese clientele.¹⁰⁵ A turn toward traditional medicine during the COVID-19 pandemic is also considered to have driven an increase in the activity.¹⁰⁶,¹⁰⁷

2. Environmental Degradation

Cambodian laws tend to prioritize economic development over environmental protection. A 2019 study confirmed that economic development has come at the expense of environmental degradation.¹⁰⁸

3. Land Disputes

In its drive to attract foreign investment, Cambodia has awarded Economic Land Concessions (ELCs) to mainly Chinese, Vietnamese and South Korean companies.¹⁰⁹ These are long-term leases permitting the development of industrial-scale agriculture.¹¹⁰ However, civic groups note a sharp rise in the number of forced evictions¹¹¹ and evictions without negotiation or adequate compensation.¹¹² There are ongoing conflicts between investors who hold formal land rights and community members who hold traditional land rights.¹¹³ Similarly, poorly monitored ELCs may fail to adhere to their approved plans.¹¹⁴,¹¹⁵ The RGC has suspended the granting of land concessions and is reportedly subjecting existing land concessions to reviews. For examples of disputed regions of Cambodia, see Open Development Cambodia’s land dispute tracker.¹¹⁶

4. Gender Inequality in the Labor Market

Although there is a large body of literature analyzing the effects of FDI on labor market outcomes, there is still little evidence regarding gender effects. Research conducted in 2020 by the Asian Development Bank Institute could not find evidence that FDI helps reduce the gender wage gap in either the garment sector or other manufacturing sectors.¹¹⁷ Nonetheless, a decomposing household survey conducted as part of the research demonstrated that the gender wage gap in formal manufacturing is reduced through FDI, while not in the garment industry, which is the foundation of the economy and employs mostly women.¹¹⁸

Women commonly work in the garment industry, whether in the factories or selling at markets. Photo by Chetan Hireholi.

V. Recommendations

While the RGC has entered into FDI agreements that have and are likely to continue to economically benefit Cambodia, the sustainability of these benefits, the implementation of some aspects of agreements, and the reach of the benefits across all sectors of society are areas that would benefit from further consideration. The following recommendations have this in mind.

1. Progress on policy development and agreement ratification and implementation should be tracked

Cambodia is undergoing a number of legal changes that have an impact on FDI, and a number of agreements have yet to be ratified. Arising from these as-yet to be implemented documents are legally binding responsibilities to determine tariff schedules such as in the RCEP, and streamline administrative procedures such as in the Draft Investment Law, among other things. Tracking ratification, then the development of the related documents and shifts in regulatory procedure, as well as whether changes are in accordance with international law as indicated by the relevant law or agreement, would support the development of a transparent, easily understandable investing environment.

Something of note is that Cambodia may face revenue loss under RCEP amounting to 1.24% of the country’s 2019 GDP, or USD $270 million.¹¹⁹,¹²⁰ Tracking actual versus projected economic loss and benefit will support a clearer understanding of the impacts of such investment agreements, while also creating a stronger evidentiary base from which interested parties can draw upon when advocating for policy change and greater accountability.

Another related recommendation for tracking is of the implementation of already-agreed clauses in agreements as well as requirements in law. Some agreements, such as the ACIA, may require regulatory reform to meet the requirements of the agreement. Tracking the efforts of the RGC in implementation increases accountability and transparency.

2. Conduct research on the impact of FDI on gender

While there is an understanding that women’s participation in the labour market varies by sector, the impact of FDI involvement in particular sectors, and whether and how women benefit from the associated economic incentives and opportunities, remains an area to be studied. Without understanding such impacts on women, inclusive and sustainable development will remain unattainable. Thus, understanding the impacts of FDI on gender will help to promote Cambodia’s efforts in this regard.

3. Conduct study to identify barriers to positive spillover effects in Special Economic Zones

Special Economic Zones are well-established in Cambodia, but the oft-cited positive spillover effects have generally remained elusive due to gaps in capacity and education, as well as the difficulty for domestic small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to meet regulatory requirements, among other things. Action-oriented research to first understand the needs of and barriers experienced by both individuals and SMEs to take advantage of the benefits of SEZs, then identifying and implementing actions to meet these needs and bridge barriers would go a long way to encouraging the benefits of SEZs to come to fruition while also encouraging foreign investors to engage in business partnerships with domestic enterprises and individuals.

4. Corporate investor mapping to support advocacy in land and environmental issues

Advocacy in land and environment issues is strong in Cambodia. However, as it relates to FDI, advocacy is complicated, as corporate social responsibility remains optional, and reporting on ultimate corporate control of enterprises is not yet required. In this regard, ensuring the correct entity is responsible is difficult. Thus, corporate investor mapping, and opening this data, would be beneficial to support ongoing efforts in land and environment.

5. Illicit gambling – monitoring and documentation of activities

The rise of illicit gambling and associated illegal activities is an issue of concern in areas with high levels of FDI from China, such as Sihanoukville. Some documentation and investigation of these activities have occurred, but these activities continue and the depth of potential harm to both Chinese and Cambodian nationals is not yet understood. Continued independent monitoring of these activities, supported by systematic documentation, would be a strong first step in addressing the issue.

Annex 1

Table 1: Changes in FDI in Cambodia (2018-2019)¹²¹

Source: UNCTAD – Latest available data

Table 2: Changes in Approved FDI by Sectors (2017-2020, in USD $ Million)¹²²

Source: Council for the Development of Cambodia (National bank of Cambodia Economic & Monetary Statistics, Oct 2020)

Table 3: Examples of Foreign Companies Investing in Cambodia’s Construction Sector

Table 4: Examples of Foreign Companies Investing in Cambodia’s Non-garment Sector

Table 5: Examples of Foreign Companies Investing in Cambodia’s Garment Sector

Table 6: Examples of Foreign Companies Investing in Cambodia’s Services Sector

Table 7: Clauses in Cambodia’s Bilateral Investment Treaties

Table 8: Selected agreements from 2018 Joint Communique between Cambodia and PRC

Table 9: Types of Chinese Financial Assistance for Development

Table 10: The Industrial Development Policy (2015-25)¹²⁴

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The post Essential Information on COVID-19 first appeared on Open Development Mekong.

The Lower Mekong Region is one of the most vulnerable areas to climate change, which has the potential to jeopardize human health. The World Health Organization considers water-borne diseases, undernutrition and mosquito-borne diseases priority health concerns for the region, and climate change can transform those diseases into health emergencies.¹ Safe water and food sources are already becoming more scarce, and environmental changes would create epidemics of mosquito-borne diseases.² If climate conditions remain unchanged, instances of disease epidemics are estimated to become alarmingly high and the pressure on the health sector will most likely exceed the capacity to respond. Poverty, social inequalities and weak health systems further slow this capacity to respond and leave behind the most vulnerable populations.³

Even if emission levels rapidly decrease immediately, climate change impacts on disease patterns will continue to be felt for several decades.⁴ However, at present, it is difficult to predict with certainty what exactly these impacts will be on human health in the LMCs. While further research would help to quantify these impacts, countries should not wait to take the potential for impacts seriously, since this may leave countries underprepared.⁵ In fact, the LMCs are currently not prepared for these challenges.⁶ Water-borne diseases, undernutrition and dengue fever have the potential to disproportionately impact vulnerable populations like the poor, children, the elderly and women.⁷ To prevent the worst health outcomes – epidemics of health issues causing death – countries urgently need to implement adaptation and mitigation strategies.⁸ However, the LMCs remain very focussed on economic growth, whilst environmental health and social inequalities receive less attention.⁹

Floods inundate a rice field, which causes concerns for farmers who do not know how much of their crops they can salvage. Extreme weather patterns like these are also prime conditions for mosquito breeding. Photo by Cecile Pichon via Flickr. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

Water-borne diseases

Water-borne diseases are among the most concerning health threats for the LMCs, since they cause extremely severe symptoms of diarrhoea, which in turn create one of the largest burdens of disease, or the impact of a disease as measured by financial cost, deaths, lost productivity, and other indicators.¹⁰ People living in poverty, without an understanding of healthy practices, live in unhygienic conditions and rely on contaminated water sources for drinking and washing, which puts them more at risk.¹¹ Meanwhile, even the common health practice of using bottled water is becoming insufficient. Studies in Vietnam found that even bottled water was contaminated with pathogens, which increases the risk for diarrheal diseases. ¹²

The LMCs have reported high numbers of deaths due to contaminated water sources. Children make up a large proportion of those deaths, since they are particularly at risk of more serious symptoms of disease. ¹³ In 2016, 281 people died from diarrhoea through contaminated water sources in Lao PDR, with 213 of those deaths being children under 5. Myanmar shows the highest total number among all LMCs, with 3471 deaths in 2016. About one third of those were children under 5.¹⁴ These numbers are not expected to decrease significantly in the near future, since climate change will substantially impact access to safe water sources and thus increase the prevalence of water-borne diseases. ¹⁵ Climate hazards, such as heavy rainfalls and floods, carry pathogens and contaminate safe water sources. Droughts lead to lower water flow and levels, which increases the growth pace of pathogens. Competition for freshwater sources will become more common and more people will have to rely on potentially contaminated water sources to fulfil daily needs.¹⁶

Available data shows evidence that the impact of climate change on water-borne diseases in the LMCs will be substantial, despite gaps in the data.¹⁷ Not all the LMCs have sub-national level data on access to safe water sources, which is better than national level data since it shows sub-national variations to help detect variability in availability of clean water, thus allowing sources of water-borne diseases to be pinpointed. For the countries with this data, large disparities are present. In some Cambodian provinces, for example, less than 10% of the population have access to safe water sources.¹⁸ One case study from Lao PDR reported that over 40% of a district’s population was regularly drinking from untreated water sources. Climate variations over the previous years have increased water salinity, which increased people’s dependence on those less safe sources.¹⁹

Water quality may also be overestimated. Most studies assess water quality from large water channels like the Mekong River. Pathogens are diluted in larger bodies of water, which reduces their concentration.²⁰ However, many households rely on small water sources for drinking, which are often much more contaminated with pollutants. Data using those sources would give a different picture of water quality in a country.²¹

In addition, while studies show an association between decreased water availability and increased diarrheal diseases, quantifying the true impact remains poorly understood.²² Yet, available data does show cause for concern in the Mekong Region.

Water security and health are included in the global 2030 Agenda. SDG 6: Clean water and sanitation, is primarily focused on achieving water security, but it is also considered as a driver in achieving SDG 3: Good health and well-being. SDG 3 acknowledges the relationship between water, sanitation and health and aims to reduce the disease burden from inadequate water and sanitation services.²³

Dengue Fever

Dengue fever is a vector-borne disease transmitted through mosquitoes, which has the potential to become a public health emergency.²⁴ There is limited understanding of the disease, in part due to poor reporting,²⁵ and this potentially life-threatening disease currently has no cure. Due to their geographical area and climate, the LMCs are already prone to epidemic dengue cycles.²⁶ However, climate change can exacerbate the situation, since prolonged rains and increased temperatures provide ideal breeding conditions for mosquitoes.²⁷ Children are at highest risk of developing serious courses of the disease.

Unusually high numbers of dengue fever cases were reported in four of the five Lower Mekong Countries in 2019 (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam).²⁸ Recent reports show an eight-fold increase in dengue cases in Cambodia and a 6-fold increase in Lao PDR, compared to the same time period in 2018.²⁹ Dengue is spreading at a very high pace and the number of deaths due to dengue fever is increasing.³⁰  Vietnam reported 50 deaths and Lao PDR 59 deaths between January and October 2019.³¹ Dengue was also unusually prevalent in Myanmar, and according to a recent news article, 123 people died of the disease between January and November 2019. ³² These numbers can partly be explained by increased national reporting³³, but such a sharp rise is actually very uncommon.³⁴ Other reasons for the sharp rise in Dengue include changes in weather patterns, increased travel, and increased urbanization.³⁵

Reporting of dengue cases has historically been insufficient. Underreporting or delayed reporting of cases is typical and non-hospitalized cases mostly go unrecorded. This also means that there is limited understanding of the disease in populations with limited access to hospitals, such as those living in rural areas and those unable to pay for hospital services. These gaps hinder the detection of outbreaks and thus an early response.³⁶

Additional capacity concerns limit the usefulness of data on Dengue in the Mekong Region. Data availability and reporting varies a lot between the countries, making collaborations and comparisons difficult. Regions in come countries, like Lao PDR, still conduct paper-based reporting, which is more prone to errors. Furthermore, the media commonly publishes numbers on disease outbreaks before official government reports, raising concerns regarding data validity and quality.³⁷

At present, Dengue fever is not receiving sufficient attention from decision-makers. Considering that Dengue epidemics can occur unexpectedly, such outbreaks might overwhelm the LMCs’ capacity to adequately respond.³⁸ In terms of the global development agenda, Dengue fever is included, although not explicitly, in SDG 3.3, which aims to end the epidemics of communicable diseases. Many other SDGs are interlinked with the prevention of Dengue. In particular, SDG 13: Climate action, is extremely relevant, since it has a great impact on transmission patterns. Furthermore, SDG 4: Quality education, will increase knowledge and thus the impact of prevention.³⁹

Undernutrition

Undernutrition is a critical state of poor health and comes from lacking access to food sources, insufficient nutrient intake or infectious diseases. Undernutrition affects people at all ages, but it is particularly severe for children, since it greatly impacts child development.⁴⁰. Stunting, wasting and underweight are the most prevalent forms of undernutrition in the LMCs. Stunting is described as low height for age, whilst wasting is described as low weight for height.⁴¹ Stunting indicates that children have not reached their full genetic physical and cognitive potential due to chronic undernutrition. Stunted children are expected to suffer from impaired brain development, which will negatively impact their learning skills and thus their labor opportunities.⁴². Wasting usually occurs when children lose weight very fast and it can be life-threatening with severe impacts on cognitive and physical development.⁴³ The consequences of these impacts are irreversible.

Prevalence of stunting in children under 5 is extremely high in Lao PDR, with 43.8% of all children being stunted in 2011. Cambodia recorded 32.4% in 2014, similar to Myanmar, with almost 30% prevalence in 2016.⁴⁴ Stunting in children is connected to maternal health; for instance, if a mother has poor nutrition her child is more likely to be stunted. Women are more likely to have limited food consumption, in part due to socioeconomic circumstances as well as cultural beliefs. A study from Cambodia also found that lack of knowledge was a significant contributor to poor diets.⁴⁵ 

Additionally, wasting in the region continues to decrease at a very slow pace and in some countries, numbers even reverse.⁴⁶ In Thailand, the prevalence of wasting has only decreased from 6.7% in 1995 to 5.4% in 2016. Vietnam recorded an increase, from 6.1% in 2010 to 6.4% in 2016.⁴⁷ 

Climate change can significantly contribute to undernutrition by destroying food security. Food security means that people have constant physical, social and economic access to food sources, which meet the required amount and quality to live a healthy life.⁴⁸ The food sector is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change.⁴⁹ Drought, heavy rainfalls, extreme weather events and high CO2 levels limit availability and access to food sources, reduce the nutritional quality of food, and raise food prices.⁵⁰ If climate hazards become more prevalent, the number of undernourished people will rapidly increase as well. Poor people living in rural areas, often dependent on agricultural work, will suffer most.⁵¹ Women are disproportionately impacted and have a 10% higher chance of being food insecure in comparison to men.⁵² To cope with food shortage, women are also likely to reduce their personal food intake or prepare lower-quality foods for their families.⁵³

Undernutrition has been a public health concern for many years and was already part of the MDG agenda. The additional threat of the unpredictability of climate change on this concern and on food security has been acknowledged by ASEAN.⁵⁴  Part of the ASEAN regional response has been to establish the ASEAN Post-2015 Health Development Agenda.⁵⁵ Furthermore, all countries, including the LMCs, have national policies in place covering food security and child undernutrition.⁵⁶ On the global agenda, SDG 2: Zero hunger targets these issues. Progress in achieving SDG2 is measured by the indicators of stunting and wasting. While a good start, these numbers may not give a full understanding of the nutritional situation in a country. Prevalence numbers do not reflect undernourishment, which also means that inequality in undernutrition is not reflected in the data. For instance, some countries may show low levels of malnutrition, but the severity might be extremely high. Since the SDGs are aiming to support the ones who are furthest behind, data reflecting these gaps are needed.⁵⁷

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Climate change impacts human health. Now considered by the World Health Organization to be the greatest health challenge of the 21st century, the relationship between climate change and health has received little attention.¹ Only limited research on the topic has been done.² However, the growing evidence of the negative impacts, both direct and indirect, of climate change on health is beginning to inform public health discussions.³ Direct impacts can be attributed to climate-related hazards and often have severe health outcomes, such as deaths from drought. Indirect effects cover a wider spectrum of health effects, which appear due to the ecological and societal response to climate change. Since indirect impacts can occur years after climate-hazards have happened, they are difficult to determine.⁴ For instance, a community may suffer health effects from a long period of undernutrition due to repeated crop failures resulting from salination or extreme weather patterns.

Due to their geographical area, the LMCs are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Climate-related hazards, such as floods, droughts, landslides or sea level rise are becoming more frequent. The Paris Agreement recognizes that vulnerable countries like the LMCs need financial and technological support to respond to climate change. It also acknowledges that health is a human right.⁵ 

Responding to the impacts of climate change on health requires both mitigation and adaptation strategies. Climate change mitigation, or reducing the impacts of climate change, could save lives by reducing the burden of non-communicable diseases. For instance, reducing greenhouse gases can decrease air pollution and  prevent negative health outcomes. On the other hand, adaptation aims to decrease the vulnerability of populations to environmental health risks – air pollution, for example.⁶ Adaptation strategies are more complex to implement than mitigative strategies,⁷ because impacting the environmental determinants of health is complex and depends on changes in other sectors.

Yet, despite studies suggesting that the financial benefits of preventing illness is twice that of responding to illness,⁸ the impacts of climate change on health continue to be overlooked by decision-makers. This is a major concern, particularly because protecting human health requires a multi-sectoral approach.⁹ Moreover, decision-makers need to carefully balance their strategy between improving human health and adapting to or mitigating climate change. For instance, improvements in health facilities require energy investments, which can increase emission levels. Harmonized climate change and health agendas may help to create the necessary balance.¹⁰

Indirect impacts of climate change on health in the Mekong

The Lower Mekong Region, especially Cambodia and Vietnam, is at high risk of flooding due to climate change.¹¹ Floods, combined with high temperatures, threaten water and food security by contaminating drinking water sources and impacting crops, among other things. This can further lead to food- and water-borne diseases.¹² Cambodia’s access to safe water supplies, the lowest of all the LMCs, saw only 79% of the total population with access to basic drinking water sources (within 30 minutes round trip) and 26% with access to safely managed drinking-water services (accessible on premises) in 2017.¹³

The LMCs may also be impacted by undernutrition due to decreased access to food after natural disasters. Undernutrition contributes to ill-health, and because sick people cannot work productively, it may result in a rise in poverty. High temperatures and humidity add to the difficulty by making outdoor work difficult, in turn reducing agricultural production and leading to further food insecurity.¹⁴

Moreover, ecological changes, like those experienced by the LMCs in the last decades, can increase the risk of vector-borne diseases¹⁵., a category that includes mosquito-borne diseases such as Malaria and Dengue Fever. In Cambodia, mean annual temperatures have increased by 0.8°C since 1960 and the frequency of hot days has increased by 46. Lao PDR had also experienced an increase in temperature of 0.1-0.3°C per decade by 2000. Thailand recorded an increase of 1°C since 1950 and the mean annual temperature is projected to increase by another 1.4-1.8°C by 2060. High temperatures such as these, humidity, and increasingly heavy rainfalls provide ideal conditions for vector-borne diseases to spread.¹⁶ In 2019, some LMCs experienced a great increase in Dengue Fever cases. Thailand recorded over 98,000 cases by October 2019, compared to 42,000 cases for the same time period in 2018.¹⁷ Cambodia shows an even larger increase, from 8,632 cases by November 2018 compared to 66,461 cases for the same time period in 2019.^{18 19} In Lao PDR, 5,914 cases were reported in September 2018, compared to 38,026 observed cases in September 2019  with 59 deaths from Dengue fever.^{20 21}

Note, however, that while these numbers give a snapshot of Dengue Fever in the LMCs, the WHO acknowledges some major challenges with the data. Reporting varies between countries, and cases often remain misdiagnosed, unreported, or are reported after a delay. Some statistics include suspected and confirmed cases, whilst others only report laboratory-confirmed cases. Incomplete datasets complicate disease detection and thus disease control.²² The disease often remains asymptomatic or mild, which further complicates accurate reporting.

Finally, climate change can also impact mental health. Extreme weather events may cause mental stress and lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety or depression. Natural disasters can lead to forced displacement, another stressor for mental health²³ For example, Lao PDR experienced heavy rainfalls in 2018, resulting in flooding in 11 provinces. Over 6,000 people were displaced and had to reside in evacuation camps. More than 25% off all outpatient cases were treated for trauma, PTSD or depression, but psychological support remained inadequate due to a shortage of mental health professionals.²⁴

Mediating Factors

The impact of climate change depends on multiple social, environmental and public health factors put some populations more at risk of developing adverse health effects than others.²⁵ For example, working in agriculture, a high risk occupation that is an important income source in the LMCs puts workers more at risk of transmittable diseases, since they are more likely to be in contact with contaminated water after floods.

Socio-economic status is another determinant in health outcomes. In Cambodia, studies have shown that poverty reduces access to safe water sources. Also, ethnic minorities will be disproportionately affected. Highland populations in Lao PDR and ethnic minority groups in Vietnam rely heavily on natural resources. A consequence of climate change is a reduction in sustainable access to vital resources which can lead to severe health outcomes, such as undernutrition. Added to infrastructural shortcomings²⁶ and less than universal healthcare,²⁷ access to health facilities is further complicated.

Living in rural areas can also complicate climate change impacts on health. This pattern shows clearly in the LMCs, where some countries have higher rural populations than others. For instance, rural populations have limited access to fuels and often rely on unclean fuels, or fuels that give off high emissions such as wood, agricultural waste or coal, as an energy source. Burning these fuels releases highly polluted smoke, which is not only a major health risk, but also greatly contributes to outdoor air pollution.²⁸ In 2016, where only 6% of Lao PDR’s population had access to clean fuels for cooking²⁹, over 5000 deaths were attributed to indoor air pollution.³⁰ Only 18% of the total population in each of Myanmar and Cambodia have access; over 44,000 deaths were attributed to indoor air pollution in Myanmar, and over 10,000 deaths in Cambodia.³¹ Thailand and Vietnam, the more developed countries of the LMCs, had 74% and 67% access to clean fuels for cooking respectively.³² Indoor air pollution caused almost 30,000 deaths in Thailand and over 32,000 deaths in Vietnam in 2016.³³

Men and women are also unevenly affected. For example, droughts may require women, who are primarily responsible for water collection in the LMCs, to travel farther to find clean water sources from which to collect water. Carrying heavy water pots for a long time can cause not only physical injuries, but also costs time that could otherwise be used for education, other work, or leisure. Men, on the other hand, are more prone to developing mental health problems due to drought, which has been shown to increase suicide rates.³⁴

Climate change, health and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Climate change’s impact on health will slow down progress in achieving the SDGs. While climate change is not specifically indicated in the SDG on health, SDG3 – Good health and well-being, each indicator has the potential to be impacted by climate change. In fact, all SDGs will be impacted by climate change, beyond what is noted in SDG13 – Climate Action. For example, climate change may increase the incidence of diseases, which means more individuals will need to spend money to access health care, putting them at higher risk of impoverishment, thus impacting SDG 1 – No Poverty. ³⁵ This is particularly relevant for the ASEAN countries including the LMCs, where health insurance coverage is low and out-of-pocket spending on health is common.³⁶

Current policies have not significantly reduced the risk of environmental health challenges. If this continues, large parts of the population, often those who contribute the least to climate change, will feel the negative consequences.³⁷ Scientific evidence is needed to inform policy. The traditional metrics of health data should be extended to include human rights, equity, socio-economic and financial indicators.³⁸ As new climate and health challenges arise, good implementation of strategies is crucial. While all the LMCs have established relevant strategies, financial constraints and limited capacity mean that implementation is limited.³⁹

Climate change is a pressing and present concern for those engaged in sustainable development in the Mekong Region. Photo by 350.org via Flickr. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Data availability and relevance for future progress

Finding causal statistical evidence for the impact of climate change on health is challenging, since climate change is a long-term process and health is impacted by many variables. Moreover, impacts may vary from one geographical area to another, which makes generalized conclusions difficult.⁴⁰ This does not mean that climate change has no impacts, or that no data can be found. However, it is true that there is limited relevant data available.

Currently, the impact of climate change on health is understood through data on changes in rates of disease and scenario-based models. Though useful, these methods also often do not account for external drivers of disease transmission such as socio-economic factors.⁴¹ Further, collecting reliable, relevant data is necessary to raise awareness, develop strategies and achieve progress. Some countries in the LMCs, such as Cambodia⁴² and Lao PDR⁴³, have recognized the need to develop national strategies on climate change and health. However, without relevant data, policymakers cannot address the issue sufficiently and every delay in taking action will negatively impact people’s health. Considering the vulnerability of the LMCs to climate change, urgent action is needed.⁴⁴

The Lower Mekong Countries are expected to be hit hard by climate change. Photo by G. Smith (CIAT) via Flickr. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

The post Climate change and health first appeared on Open Development Mekong.

Developing infrastructure in the Lower Mekong Countries (LMCs) is a major undertaking, requiring significant financial investment. In the LMCs, the main financiers, or entities that deal with large-scale investment, include both bilateral (country-to-country) investment, like from China, as well as multilateral (investors from more than one source) investment, such as through the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Investment can be concessional (defined as loans with interest rates lower than the market interest rates, and/or loans provided with a grace period¹) as in the case of Official Development Aid (ODA), or it can be non-concessional (loans provided at market interest rates). Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are being strongly encouraged in the region.

Bilateral and multilateral infrastructure investment in the LMCs

Some of the top bilateral investors shared by the LMCs include Japan, France, Australia, China, South Korea, and the United States. The numbers below include investments in infrastructure and are not restricted to concessional financing. Because China’s investment is uniquely defined², and its investment into infrastructure in the LMCs is of particular significance for the region, Chinese infrastructure investment will be discussed in a separate section.

Access the data here.

Non-concessional financing with private financiers is being promoted as a way to obtain sufficient funding for infrastructure. For example, ADB encourages and supports PPPs in the LMCs. One such project is the Bangkok Mass Rapid Transit Project, monitored by ADB’s Private Sector Operation Department. It allows the private sector to invest in civil networks, while the Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand will be responsible for providing land.³ The private parties include a Sino-Thai company. In addition, there are 32 non-sovereign or private sector projects registered with the ADB.⁴ The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) has also prioritized mobilizing private capital for infrastructure, and thus includes on its roster a number of projects financed by private entities.⁵

Note that negative numbers in the graph above are because the OECD records loan repayments as negative and deducts them from ODA and loans to calculate net ODA. If loan repayments are higher than new ODA, then net ODA will show as a negative number.⁶

However, concessional ODA, including from financiers like the ADB and AIIB and funds like the Global Fund, still accounts for the majority of infrastructure investment in the LMCs. Alongside investment into individual country projects, these financiers have been promoting regional cooperation between the LMCs for infrastructure development. For example, ADB has supported multilateral cooperation in the LMCs since 1992 with the Greater Mekong Subregion Economic Cooperation Program. The current focus of the concessional aspect of this program is on improving economic cooperation. Other ADB-supported projects are more country specific, such as the Central Mekong Delta Region Connectivity Technical Assistance Project. Focused on Vietnam, the project aims to improve connectivity of transportation services from Ho Chi Minh City to the Mekong Delta and the southern coastal regions. AIIB has strong regional involvement through the ADB’s Greater Mekong Subregion Economic Cooperation Program as well. It has also provided a concessional loan amount of $20 million to the Myingyan Power Plant Project in Myanmar.⁷

Some bilaterally funded initiatives also have a regional focus. The Lower Mekong Initiative (LMI), established by the US in 2009, is focused on enhancing cooperation between the LMCs.⁸ One pillar of the initiative focuses on connectivity, which aims to bring US technical expertise to the LMCs to help build infrastructure for information and communication technology (ICT), aviation, and energy. Administration of this pillar is co-chaired by the US and Lao PDR. The initiative features the Mekong Technology Innovation Generation and Entrepreneurship Resources (TIGERS), which connects different organizations in the LMCs to increase opportunities for investment in infrastructure, trade and environment.

China

As one of the largest trading partners of the Lower Mekong Countries,⁹ China has increasingly been enhancing its role in the Lower Mekong Countries. This is being accomplished not only by establishing Chinese-led institutional mechanisms, but also by pouring financing into the LMCs. While these funds can still generally be split into concessional and non-concessional, as well as bilateral and multilateral, it is not easily categorized into investments and foreign aid. Chinese “foreign aid” is defined differently from the OECD’s ODA, and is provided according to three mechanisms:

• concessional loans, which has a longer repayment period and lower interest rates;
• grants, which are a gift of money, services, or goods for a specific project that does not need to be repaid; and
• interest-free loans, which is a loan that needs to be paid back during a specific period, without interest.¹⁰

A map of Chinese Financial Aid Projects can be found by clicking here.

While China does provide funds to multilateral banks like ADB, direct government-to-government assistance is its preferred method of financing.¹¹ Its aid also generally goes well beyond cash, from human resources and technical assistance, to official loans at market rates supported by the two state policy banks – China EximBank and the China Development Bank (CDB).¹² These banks also support private investment on the form of loans to Chinese companies. These loans are problematic because they lack transparency – for example, the Lower Sesan 2 Hydropower Project in Cambodia is a non-concessional hydropower project built by a majority Chinese-held joint venture. 70% of its funding comes from an undisclosed bank loan, which is suspected to be from China. Built on a “Build-Operate-Transfer” model, this dam will sell energy back to Cambodia, and Cambodia will not gain ownership of the project until after 40 years.¹³

Man on the banks of the Sesan River in Northeastern Cambodia, the location of the Lower Sesan 2 Dam Project. Photo by Ethan Crowley, Flickr. Licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Furthermore, while multilateral development banks such as AIIB and World Bank have focused on investments in rail when it comes to infrastructure development, China EximBank and the CDB have emphasised both urban rail and roads. These two banks provide funds for much Chinese investment in the LMCs. For instance, China EximBank is the top funder and manager of the private equity based China-ASEAN Investment Cooperation Fund¹⁴. It has also provided a concessional loan worth USD 54 million to build a bridge over the Mekong River, connecting China to the LMCs,¹⁵ and contributed significantly to the No.76 National Highway Extension Line connecting northeastern Cambodia with its neighbouring countries in 2016.¹⁶ The CDB has also provided 5% of the funds to the Silk Road Fund, which supports China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

China’s involvement in the LMCs is significant not only because it is part of the general trend of China’s involvement globally, but also because it links China economically to the other countries along the Mekong River.¹⁷ Thus a lot of Chinese investment in the LMCs is regional in focus. For example, China has actively supported ADB’s GMS Economic Cooperation Program, especially regarding connectivity.¹⁸

In addition, China initiated the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation, a five-year plan aimed at improving the economic and social development of the LMCs.¹⁹ This partnership features a special fund, which will focus on five development areas: agricultural and poverty reduction, water resources, production capacity, cross-border economic cooperation, and connectivity. Connectivity projects are of particular importance, as they are based on large-scale infrastructure development involving cross-boundary cooperation. A significant amount of money has been pledged to this framework. In January 2018, Chinese premier Li Keqiang announced China would provide another 7 billion RMB (USD$1.08 billion) in government concessional loans to the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation framework, on top of the 10 billion RMB (USD$1.6 billion) already contributed in 2016. At the same time, Premier Li also pledged a USD$5 billion credit line in support of production capacity and equipment manufacturing cooperation in the LMCs, in addition to the first promise of USD$10 billion credit.²⁰

Connectivity projects under the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation framework include the Kunming-Bangkok road and the China-Laos railway. These signature projects are also part of the larger-scale Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The BRI is important as it would take advantage of infrastructure projects such as transportation and electricity to connect neighbouring economies to the Chinese economy, thus influencing the region politically.²¹ However, there have also been critiques against the BRI based on the claim that it lacks transparency, as well as the fact that it depends on unequal trading relations between China and other smaller powers.²²

CAPTION. Map created by ODM, view related datasets on Map Explorer.

Related Topics

• Infrastructure
• SDGs
• Aid and Development

The post Infrastructure Financiers first appeared on Open Development Mekong.

Impacts of infrastructure development

Infrastructure development along the Lower Mekong continues to have social and environmental impacts. For instance, hydropower development in Cambodia, such as the Kamchay Dam developed by China’s Sinohydro Corporation, and Kirirom III developed by China’s China Electric Power Technology Import-Export Corporation, are costly, and can bring detrimental effects to local communities as a result of construction.¹ As non-concessional PPP projects, they lack transparency. Furthermore, because Kamchay is being managed according to the Build-Operate-Transfer model, the Chinese builder Sinohydro will receive the majority of the revenue generated from the dam for 40 years, before it is transferred to Cambodian ownership to directly benefit Cambodia.

Kamchay Dam, a Chinese-financed hydropower project, is located near Kampot, Cambodia. Photo by Ken Marshall, Flickr. Licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Some investments in the LMCs have reflected an understanding of the impacts of infrastructure development. For example, the Thai Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE), Government of the People’s Republic of China and Mekong Institute (MI) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on a China-Thai Project in October, 2018 aimed at promoting cooperation in hydropower as well as mitigating negative impact on environment brought by development of Mekong River.² It is supported by the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Special Fund. Other multilateral cooperation, such as the Mekong River Basin Water Utilization Project³, has also previously taken place along the Lower Mekong River.

Related Topics

• Infrastructure
• SDGs
• SDG 5 – Gender Equality
• SDG 9 – Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure

The post Impacts of Infrastructure Development first appeared on Open Development Mekong.